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Purpose: To assess age-related differences in baseline measures of reading performance obtained from the RADNER Reading Charts in healthy eyes with best corrected (ETDRS) distance acuity., Methods: Cross-sectional study of participants (n=200) aged 25-74 years (n=20 per 5 years age group). Best corrected distance visual acuity was measured monocularly with ETDRS 2000 Charts. Reading performance was evaluated binocularly with the RADNER Reading Charts. Reading acuity (RA), reading acuity score (RA score), mean reading speed (MEAN-RS), maximum reading speed, reading speed with a long paragraph, critical print size (CPS) and the logMAR/logRAD ratio were analysed., Results: RA, RA score, CPS-1 (last logRAD with normal reading speed) and ETDRS acuity did not change significantly between age 25 and 54 years. Overall, the mean RA was -0.091±0.07 logRAD, and the RA score was -0.069±0.07 logRAD. The mean difference between the RA and best ETDRS acuity was 0.0603±0.055 logMAR (r=0.62; p<0.05). The logMAR/logRAD ratio was 87.75%±11.23%. The MEAN-RS ranged from 189±21.9 words per minute (wpm) for the group aged 70-74 years to 236±22.5 wpm for the group aged 40-44 years and correlated well with the long paragraph results (r=0.87)., Conclusion: Best corrected RA, reading speed and ETDRS distance acuity were constant until the age of 54 years. An age-related break point was found between the groups aged 50-54 years and 55-59 years; for reading speed, the break point can be assumed to be within the age range of 50-54 years., Competing Interests: Competing interests: WR receives royalties for the RADNER Reading Charts., (© Author(s) (or their employer(s)) 2019. No commercial re-use. See rights and permissions. Published by BMJ.)

Purpose: To investigate the age-related course of best-corrected visual acuity in healthy eyes., Methods: Two hundred participants (400 eyes) 25 to 74 years of age (114 females, 86 males) were investigated, 20 per 5-year age group. Best-corrected visual acuity was measured monocularly with the ETDRS 2000 charts at a distance of 4 m (Precision Vision, Woodstock, IL, USA). Strict exclusion and termination criteria were used., Results: Visual acuity did not change between ages 25 and 54 years (mean of the better eyes, - 0.18 ± 0.05 logMAR). A significant age-related break-point in visual acuity was found at the ages of 55-59 years. For all age groups, the overall mean visual acuity was - 0.15 ± 0.06 logMAR for the better eyes and - 0.13 ± 0.06 logMAR for the worse eyes. There was no difference between the right and left eyes (- 0.14 ± 0.06 logMAR). The visual acuity was better in the right eye in 29% (n = 58) of the participants, better in the left eye in 32% (n = 64), and the same in both eyes in 39% (n = 78). From ages 25 to 64 years, neither the better nor the worse eye had a visual acuity worse than 0.0 logMAR., Conclusion: Best-corrected visual acuity was constantly high until the age of 54 years. An age-related break-point appeared at 55 to 59 years of age. Until age 64, a minimal angle of resolution smaller than 1 min of arc (visual acuity better 0.0 logMAR) can be expected in healthy eyes.

Purpose: To present an overview of contemporary methods and metrics used to measure near vision, intermediate vision, and accommodation., Methods: A search in PubMed was performed with the following key phrases: near vision, intermediate vision, objective and subjective methods for the measurement of accommodation. For subjective methods, we included only those that are most widely used, had a scientific evidence of its outcomes, and have an easy availability at the doctor's office. For objective methods, we included those aberrometers or autorefractometers that have been proven to give good repeatability and reproducibility in the study of changes in optical power of the eye along the accommodative process., Results: Near vision should be tested at 40 cm and intermediate vision at 63 or 80 cm. Accommodation should be measured with objective methods such as autorefractometers or aberrometers., Conclusions: The standardization for the measurement of near and intermediate vision, as well as the reading charts, will facilitate the comparison of visual outcomes between studies. Measurement of accommodation should be performed with objective methods as subjective methods tend to overestimate the accommodative power., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

A new generation of logarithmic reading charts has sparked interest in standardized reading performance analyses. Such reading charts have been developed according to the standards of the International Council of Ophthalmology. The print size progression in these calibrated charts is in accordance with the mathematical background of EN ISO 8596. These reading charts are: the Bailey-Lovie Word Reading Chart, the Colenbrander English Continuous Text Near Vision Cards, the Oculus Reading Probe II, the MNREAD Charts, the SKread Charts, and the RADNER Reading Charts. The test items used for these reading charts differ among the charts and are standardized to various extents. The Bailey-Lovie Charts, MNREAD Charts, SKread Charts, and RADNER Charts are also meant to measure reading speed and allow determination of further reading parameters such as reading acuity, reading speed based on reading acuity, critical print size, reading score, and logMAR/logRAD ratio. Such calibrated reading charts have already provided valuable insights into the reading performance of patients in many research studies. They are available in many languages and thus facilitate international communication about near visual performance. In the present review article, the backgrounds of these modern reading charts are presented, and their different levels of test-item standardization are discussed. Clinical research studies are mentioned, and a discussion about the immoderately high number of reading acuity notations is included. Using the logReading Acuity Determination ([logRAD] = reading acuity equivalent of logMAR) measure for research purposes would give reading acuity its own identity as a standardized reading parameter in ophthalmology.

Purpose: To compare the reading time and reading speed measurements obtained with a stopwatch with those of an automated computer program for measuring reading speed and acuity (rad-rd © ; patent: AT 504635B1/10-2006)., Methods: The rad-rd © was used (in conjunction with a PC and microphone) for the computer-based measurements. In rotation, each of four examiners took a turn reading the 12 sentences from one of the four RADNER Reading Charts to three other examiners, who served as stoppers. The stoppers simultaneously measured the reading time with a stopwatch while a fifth investigator used the rad-rd © to obtain computerized measurements. The stopwatch measurements were then statistically compared with the rad-rd © measurements., Results: The mean reading time obtained with the stopwatch measurements was 4.34 ± 0.57 seconds (196.21 ± 21.79 wpm), versus 4.44 ± 0.59 seconds (192.24 ± 22.20 wpm) by computer measurement (r = 0.84). Of the 144 stopwatch measurements, 97 (67.36%) were shorter, and 47 (32.64%) were equal to (n = 5) or longer than the computer measurements. The mean difference for the shorter measurements was -0.17 ± 0.1 seconds (3.91% of the mean reading time), and the mean difference for the longer measurements was 0.11 ± 0.1 seconds (2.53% of the mean reading time). Most differences ranged from -0.1 to 0.1 seconds (42.36%). The results did not differ significantly among the four stoppers., Conclusion: The rad-rd © is an accurate, automated computer program for measuring reading time. Stopwatch measurements, although subject to inaccuracy from several sources, remain a reliable and simple method for analysis of reading performance., (© 2016 Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica Foundation. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Purpose: To analyze currently available reading charts regarding print size, logarithmic print size progression, and the background of test-item standardization., Methods: For the present study, the following logarithmically scaled reading charts were investigated using a measuring microscope (iNexis VMA 2520; Nikon, Tokyo): Eschenbach, Zeiss, OCULUS, MNREAD (Minnesota Near Reading Test), Colenbrander, and RADNER. Calculations were made according to EN-ISO 8596 and the International Research Council recommendations., Results: Modern reading charts and cards exhibit a logarithmic progression of print sizes. The RADNER reading charts comprise four different cards with standardized test items (sentence optotypes), a well-defined stop criterion, accurate letter sizes, and a high print quality. Numbers and Landolt rings are also given in the booklet. The OCULUS cards have currently been reissued according to recent standards and also exhibit a high print quality. In addition to letters, numbers, Landolt rings, and examples taken from a timetable and the telephone book, sheet music is also offered. The Colenbrander cards use short sentences of 44 characters, including spaces, and exhibit inaccuracy at smaller letter sizes, as do the MNREAD cards. The MNREAD cards use sentences of 60 characters, including spaces, and have a high print quality., Conclusion: Modern reading charts show that international standards can be achieved with test items similar to optotypes, by using recent technology and developing new concepts of test-item standardization. Accurate print sizes, high print quality, and a logarithmic progression should become the minimum requirements for reading charts and reading cards in ophthalmology.

Purpose: To develop 28 short texts to be used as sentence optotypes in a Danish version of the Radner Reading Chart for the measurement of reading acuity and speed., Method: Forty-six short texts of comparable lexical and grammatical difficulty were constructed. The short texts were tested together with two longer reference texts in 100 persons with visual acuity 6/6, of which 50 were university students (age: 24.7 ± 3.1 years, 36% males) and 50 were blue-collar workers (37.2 ± 13.4 years, 54% males). Study parameters were mean reading speed and error rate per participant, and mean reading time, variance and number of errors per short text., Results: The students read the short texts faster than the blue-collar workers (184 ± 21.4 words per minute (wpm) versus 163 ± 26.3 wpm, p < 0.0001). There was a high correlation between the reference texts and the short texts [Pearson's correlation coefficient = 0.89 (95% CI 0.83-0.92)]. The mean reading time for each of the short texts ranged from 4.4 s to 5.8 s with a mean of 4.96 ± 0.35 s, and the median number of errors was eight. Twenty-eight short texts were selected for sentence optotypes with mean reading times between 4.6 s and 5.2 s, a mean standard deviation of 1.2 s or less and a number of errors of 17 per 100 persons or less., Conclusion: Reading time uniformity in the Danish version of the Radner Reading Chart was comparable to that of the original German version. Education had an influence on reading performance that may warrant stratification for this parameter when reading tests are used in clinical trials., (© 2015 Acta Ophthalmologica Scandinavica Foundation. Published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

Purpose: To investigate the reliability, validity, and statistical comparability of long paragraphs that were developed to be equivalent in construction and difficulty., Methods: Seven long paragraphs were developed that were equal in syntax, morphology, and number and position of words (111), with the same number of syllables (179) and number of characters (660). For validity analyses, the paragraphs were compared with the mean reading speed of a set of seven sentence optotypes of the RADNER Reading Charts (mean of 7 × 14 = 98 words read). Reliability analyses were performed by calculating the Cronbach's alpha value and the corrected total item correlation. Sixty participants (aged 20-77 years) read the paragraphs and the sentences (distance 40 cm; font: Times New Roman 12 pt). Test items were presented randomly; reading length was measured with a stopwatch., Results: Reliability analysis yielded a Cronbach's alpha value of 0.988. When the long paragraphs were compared in pairwise fashion, significant differences were found in 13 of the 21 pairs (p < 0.05). In two sequences of three paragraphs each and in eight pairs of paragraphs, the paragraphs did not differ significantly, and these paragraph combinations are therefore suitable for comparative research studies. The mean reading speed was 173.34 ± 24.01 words per minute (wpm) for the long paragraphs and 198.26 ± 28.60 wpm for the sentence optotypes. The maximum difference in reading speed was 5.55 % for the long paragraphs and 2.95 % for the short sentence optotypes. The correlation between long paragraphs and sentence optotypes was high (r = 0.9243)., Conclusions: Despite good reliability and equivalence in construction and degree of difficulty, a statistically significant difference in reading speed can occur between long paragraphs. Since statistical significance should be dependent only on the persons tested, either standardizing long paragraphs for statistical equality of reading speed measurements or increasing the number of presented paragraphs is recommended for comparative investigations.

Purpose: To develop and validate 28 short Italian sentences for the construction of the Italian version of the Radner Reading Chart to simultaneously measure near visual acuity and reading speed., Methods: 41 sentences were constructed in Italian language, following the procedure defined by Radner, to obtain "sentence optotypes" with comparable structure and with the same lexical and grammatical difficulty. Sentences were statistically selected and used in 211 normal, non-presbyopic, native Italian-speaking persons. The most equally matched sentences in terms of reading speed and number of reading errors were selected. To assess the validity of the reading speed results obtained with the 28 selected short sentences, we compared the reading speed and reading errors with the average obtained by reading two long 4th-grade paragraphs (97 and 90 words) under the same conditions., Results: The overall mean reading speed of the tested persons was 189±26wpm. The 28 sentences more similar in terms of reading times were selected, achieving a coefficient of variation (the relative SD) of 2.2%. The reliability analyses yielded an overall Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.98. The correlation between the short sentences and the long paragraph was high (r=0.85, P<0.0001)., Conclusions: The 28 short single Italian sentences optotypes were highly comparable in syntactical structure, number, position, and length of words, lexical difficulty, and reading length. The resulting Italian Radner Reading Chart is precise (high consistency) and practical (short sentences) and therefore useful for research and clinical practice to simultaneously measure near reading acuity and reading speed., (Copyright © 2013 Spanish General Council of Optometry. Published by Elsevier Espana. All rights reserved.)

Purpose: To develop 28 short sentence optotypes for the English version of the Radner Reading Charts that are as comparable as possible in number and length of words, as well as in difficulty and syntactical construction., Methods: Thirty-four English sentences were constructed following the method used for other Radner Reading Charts to obtain "sentence optotypes" with comparable structure and the same lexical and grammatical difficulty. Best comparable sentences were statistically selected and standardized in 50 volunteers. Reading speed and the number of errors were determined. Validity was analyzed with a 124-word long 4th-grade paragraph of the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test®. Computerized measurements of reading parameters were performed with the RADNER Reading Device (RAD-RD©; in conjunction with a PC and microphone)., Results: The mean reading speed obtained with the 28 selected short sentences was 201.53 ± 35.88 words per minute (wpm), as compared to 215.01 ± 30.37 wpm for the long paragraph. The mean reading times were 4.30 ± 0.79 s and 35.26 ± 4.85 s, respectively. The mean number of reading errors was 0.11 ± 0.34. The correlation between the short sentences and the long paragraph was high (r = 0.76; p < 0.05; n = 50). Reliability analyses yielded an overall Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.9743., Conclusion: The present study indicates that the 28 selected English sentence optotypes are comparable in terms of both lexical difficulty as well as in reading length, and it demonstrates the validity and reliability of such sentences as test items for determining reading parameters such as reading acuity and speed.

Purpose: To develop 24 short Spanish optotype sentences for the construction of a test based on the Radner reading test to simultaneously measure near visual acuity and reading speed., Setting: Department of Refractive Surgery, Vissum-Instituto de Oftalmológico de Alicante, Alicante, Spain., Methods: Thirty-one sentences were constructed in Spanish following the procedure defined by Radner to obtain sentence optotypes with comparable structure and the same lexical and grammatical difficulty. Sentences were statistically selected and standardized in 60 patients divided into 2 groups by educational level. Group A (30 patients) had a university education and Group B (30 patients), a primary school education. The interval of reading time was defined as the overall mean +/-1.1 x SD. All sentences with a mean between 3.59 seconds and 4.04 seconds were selected for the reading charts., Results: The mean age was 30.8 years +/- 6.2 (SD) in Group A and 37.3 +/- 10.7 years in Group B. The mean reading time was 3.8 +/- 0.9 seconds in all patients, 3.5 +/- 0.6 seconds in Group A, and 4.1 +/- 1.0 seconds in Group B., Conclusion: The 24 short single Spanish sentences were highly comparable in syntactical structure; number, position, and length of words; lexical difficulty; and reading length.

A chart for measuring visual acuity is a better functional test than the routine distance visual acuity testing with single optotypes. The characteristics of a good reading chart are: logarithmically diminishing print size, simultaneous measurement of reading acuity and reading speed, and the calculation of one score for reading acuity corrected for the number of reading errors. The original German-language Radner Reading Chart meets all these requirements, and above all emphasizes the principle of 'sentence optotypes' i.e. highly standardized sentences, because sentence complexity also influences reading performance. Sentence optotypes were created in the Dutch language and tested according to Radner's strict principles. The most equally matched sentence optotypes in terms of reading speed and number of reading errors were selected for the introduction and printing of the first Dutch version of the Radner Reading Chart. The Dutch Radner Reading Chart is precise and practical and therefore useful for research and daily practice.

Background: To examine if standardized reading charts with highly comparable test items can be used for evaluating impairments in the monocular reading performance of children with microstrabismic amblyopia characterized by a small angle of squint with less than 5 degrees., Methods: The reading performance of 22 children (mean age: 11.7+/-1.6 years) with unilateral microstrabismic amblyopia was evaluated monocularly in both eyes, using standardized reading charts for the simultaneous determination of reading acuity and speed. The print sizes of the highly comparable sentence optotypes were logarithmically graded, providing constant geometric proportions for all testing distances in order to control contour interaction. All children were under continuous amblyopia therapy., Results: In the amblyopic eyes, reading acuity and maximum reading speed were significantly impaired when compared to the sound fellow eyes (P<0.001). In respect of the maximum reading speed, a mean inter-ocular difference of 33+/-19 words per minute was found, revealing functionally relevant deficits in monocular reading performance. The amblyopic eyes achieved only a significantly reduced reading acuity (mean inter-ocular difference: LogRAD 0.5+/-0.24; P<0.001). In eight children, the amblyopic eyes achieved a best-corrected visual acuity of LogMAR 0.0 or better: in respect of the visual acuity, there was no significant inter-ocular difference, but reading acuity and maximum reading speed were significantly impaired when compared to the fellow eyes., Conclusions: Microstrabismic amblyopia was associated with significant impairment of reading acuity and speed in treated amblyopes, even in those with no persistent acuity deficit. To improve treatment addressing these functional deficits, reading performance should be monitored over time using standardized reading tests, which provide essential information about functionally relevant reading impairments.

Purpose: To evaluate the influence of laser in situ keratomileusis (LASIK) and laser-assisted subepithelial keratectomy (LASEK) on reading performance regarding reading acuity, reading speed based on print size, maximum reading speed, and critical print size., Setting: Department of Ophthalmology, University of Vienna, Vienna, and Auge-und-Laser, Medicent Baden, Austria., Methods: Fifty-two eyes of 34 patients (26 eyes per group) were studied. Best corrected LogMAR visual acuity (Early Treatment Diabetic Retinopathy Study charts), reading acuity, and reading speed were tested monocularly before LASIK or LASEK and 3 weeks after surgery. Reading acuity (LogRAD) and reading speed were determined with the standardized Radner reading charts., Results: Preoperatively, the distance visual acuity and reading acuity were comparable between the LASIK and LASEK patients. Reading speed measurements also showed no statistical difference. Three weeks after refractive surgery, no statistically significant differences in the preoperative measures and between the 2 surgical procedures could be found in any tested parameters. The mean distance visual acuity was LogMAR -0.02 +/- 0.06 (SD) (LASIK) and LogMAR -0.05 +/- 0.07 (LASEK). The mean reading acuity was LogRAD 0.00 +/- 0.12 (97.7% of LogMAR) (LASIK) and LogRAD 0.04 +/- 0.16 (93.7% of LogMAR) (LASEK). The mean maximum reading speed was 235 +/- 35 words per minute (LASIK) and 240 +/- 37 words per minute (LASEK), and the mean critical print size was at LogRAD 0.48 +/- 0.19 (LASIK) and 0.49 +/- 0.17 (LASEK)., Conclusions: In a standardized reading test setting, no significant effects of LASIK and LASEK on individual reading performance could be evaluated. This indicates that patients can expect to retain their normal visual function after refractive surgery with these 2 procedures under full light conditions.

Background: The purpose of this study was to analyze statistically the test-retest and inter-chart reliability of three standardized Radner Reading Charts with respect to reading acuity, maximum reading speed, critical print size and LogRAD/LogMAR ratio and to quantitatively identify the sources of variability., Methods: At two testing sessions (3 to 4 weeks apart), 36 volunteers read monocularly all three Radner Reading Charts in randomized order (orthogonal Latin square design). The subjects were grouped according to their distance LogMAR visual acuity (group 1, 0.1 or better; group 2, 0.12-0.4; group 3, 0.42-0.8). Based on these 216 reading tests, crude correlations were calculated between the two testing sessions and between the three charts, and "variance component analyses" were performed for all variables., Results: For all visual acuity groups and variables, the test-retest and the inter-chart reliability was high. The variance component analyses showed that the differences between individuals predominantly influenced the variance, whereas the effect of the test replication was low. The three charts caused minimal variability, indicating equality for clinical examinations., Conclusion: The standardized Radner Reading Charts provide clinically reliable and reproducible results for individuals with normal eyesight and for patients with visual impairment. These findings indicate that reading test systems, which consider the current international standards for visual acuity measurements (EN ISO 8596, NAS-NRC) and the psychophysical requirements for controlling optical item interactions, can provide reliable measures for clinical and scientific analyses of reading performance.

Purpose: To investigate whether short German sentences that have been developed to be highly comparable in number and length of words, as well as in difficulty and construction, are reliable and valid test items for measuring reading speed in order to use them for measuring simultaneously reading acuity and speed with the "Radner Reading Charts"., Methods: Tests were performed in 198 persons: 99 university students (average age 23.6+/-2.8 years) and blue-collar apprentices (average age 18.4+/-2.5 years). Reading speed and the number of errors were determined first with 24 sentences for our recently developed German reading charts (14 words equal in difficulty, length and construction) and secondly with long paragraphs of the "Zuercher Reading Test" (ZRT; paragraphs 3-5, 261 words)., Results: The overall mean reading speed obtained with short sentences was 209.6+/-41.0 words per minute (wpm), compared with 169.2+/-35.0 wpm for the ZRT ( P<0.001). The correlation between the short sentences and the ZRT was high ( r=0.9). Students read faster and made fewer errors than did the apprentices. Reliability analyses yielded an overall Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.98. The coefficient of selectivity of the 24 sentences (test items) varied from 0.75 to 0.88., Conclusion: The present study indicates that the 24 short single sentences we have tested are highly comparable in terms of both lexical difficulty and reading length, and it has demonstrated the validity and reliability of such sentences as test items for determining reading speed.

Purpose: To determine the influence of sex, age, preoperative visual acuity, and systemic disease on the delay in presentation for first-eye cataract surgery., Setting: University Eye Clinic, Vienna, Austria., Methods: This retrospective study comprised 200 consecutive patients with age-related cataract who were referred to the Ophthalmology Department of the University of Vienna and who had cataract surgery in the first eye. Patients with additional intraocular procedures or with other ocular comorbidity were excluded. Age, sex, preoperative best corrected Snellen visual acuity in both eyes, ocular and systemic comorbidity, and the duration of preoperative visual deterioration were recorded. The patients were divided into groups depending on systemic comorbidity. The severity of disease was categorized as no therapy necessary or nonexistent, nonsevere, or severe., Results: The mean age of women and men was 74.9 years and 70.7 years, respectively, and the mean preoperative visual acuity, 0.31 and 0.24. The duration of preoperative visual deterioration was 8.6 months and 12.2 months, respectively. All differences were statistically significant (P <.05). The visual acuity in the better eye was not significantly different between men and women. Neither the presence nor the type of systemic disease influenced preoperative visual acuity or the duration of preoperative visual deterioration., Conclusions: Although the visual acuity in the better eye was not different between men and women, men had cataract surgery after a longer duration of visual deterioration and with a worse visual acuity. More public information about cataract surgery is required to keep visual deterioration secondary to cataract to a minimum.

Background: Reading acuity as well as reading speed are good predictors of everyday visual function. As visual acuity tests are poor predictors of the real-world function, performance-based tests, e.g., reading speed measurements, can be used for the determination of visual function. Thus, a German reading chart was developed in order to evaluate reading acuity as well as reading speed., Methods: Print size is defined as the height of a lower case x and progresses logarithmically from one phrase to another (factor: 1.25). Reading acuity is determined in LogRAD (Reading Acuity Determination). 32 short German phrases were created, comparable concerning grammatical difficulty as well as in number (n = 14), length and position of words. The reading speed parameters measured with a stop-watch in 160 persons (aged: Phi = 21a +/- 3.8a) were calculated in words per minute (w/min). Out of the 32 phrases the 24 most similar ones were selected statistically and used for the reading charts (Radner Reading Charts). With these reading charts a reading acuity score (LogRAD-score) can be calculated considering reading errors in words of different length. Reading speed can be determined at the same time. Reading acuity (LogRAD-Score) was measured in 32 normal eyes of 16 students and compared to the angular visual acuity (LogMAR)., Results: The mean reading speed of the test persons was 211.8 +/- 34.1 w/min. 24 phrases fulfilled the test item criteria for the reading chart: mean +/- 0.25 x SD. The reliability analyses yielded an overall Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.98! The mean visual acuity measured in 32 eyes was -0.115 +/- 0.097 LogMAR and the mean reading acuity score was +0.026 +/- 0.091 LogRAD. The mean difference was +0.104 +/- 0.066 and the correlation between LogMAR and LogRAD was good (r = 0.59)., Conclusions: With these reading charts it is for the first time possible to simultaneously determine reading acuity as well as reading speed in German. The high reliability of the 24 phrases and the high correlation between LogMAR and LogRAD leads us to expect a good reproducibility of the reading acuity evaluations. For the "Radner Reading Charts" we have shown that print size is the main reason for changes of reading speed.

A new generation of logarithmic reading charts has sparked interest in standardized reading performance analyses. Such reading charts have been developed according to the standards of the International Council of Ophthalmology. The print size progression in these calibrated charts is in accordance with the mathematical background of EN ISO 8596. These reading charts are: the Bailey-Lovie Word Reading Chart, the Colenbrander English Continuous Text Near Vision Cards, the Oculus Reading Probe II, the MNREAD Charts, the SKread Charts, and the RADNER Reading Charts. The test items used for these reading charts differ among the charts and are standardized to various extents. The Bailey-Lovie Charts, MNREAD Charts, SKread Charts, and RADNER Charts are also meant to measure reading speed and allow determination of further reading parameters such as reading acuity, reading speed based on reading acuity, critical print size, reading score, and logMAR/logRAD ratio. Such calibrated reading charts have already provided valuable insights into the reading performance of patients in many research studies. They are available in many languages and thus facilitate international communication about near visual performance. In the present review article, the backgrounds of these modern reading charts are presented, and their different levels of test-item standardization are discussed. Clinical research studies are mentioned, and a discussion about the immoderately high number of reading acuity notations is included. Using the logReading Acuity Determination ([logRAD] = reading acuity equivalent of logMAR) measure for research purposes would give reading acuity its own identity as a standardized reading parameter in ophthalmology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Purpose: To develop 28 short sentence optotypes for the English version of the Radner Reading Charts that are as comparable as possible in number and length of words, as well as in difficulty and syntactical construction. Methods: Thirty-four English sentences were constructed following the method used for other Radner Reading Charts to obtain 'sentence optotypes' with comparable structure and the same lexical and grammatical difficulty. Best comparable sentences were statistically selected and standardized in 50 volunteers. Reading speed and the number of errors were determined. Validity was analyzed with a 124-word long 4th-grade paragraph of the Florida Comprehensive Assessment Test®. Computerized measurements of reading parameters were performed with the RADNER Reading Device (RAD-RD©; in conjunction with a PC and microphone). Results: The mean reading speed obtained with the 28 selected short sentences was 201.53 ± 35.88 words per minute (wpm), as compared to 215.01 ± 30.37 wpm for the long paragraph. The mean reading times were 4.30 ± 0.79 s and 35.26 ± 4.85 s, respectively. The mean number of reading errors was 0.11 ± 0.34. The correlation between the short sentences and the long paragraph was high ( r = 0.76; p < 0.05; n = 50). Reliability analyses yielded an overall Cronbach's alpha coefficient of 0.9743. Conclusion: The present study indicates that the 28 selected English sentence optotypes are comparable in terms of both lexical difficulty as well as in reading length, and it demonstrates the validity and reliability of such sentences as test items for determining reading parameters such as reading acuity and speed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aim: To evaluate if functionally relevant deficits in reading performance exist in children with essential microstrabismic amblyopia by comparing the monocular and binocular reading performance with the reading performance of normal sighted children with full visual acuity in both eyes. Methods: The reading performance of 40 children (mean age 11.6 (SD 1.4) years) was evaluated monocularly and binocularly in randomised order, using standardised reading charts for the simultaneous determination of reading acuity and speed. 20 of the tested children were under treatment for unilateral microstrabismic amblyopia (visual acuity in the amblyopic eyes: logMAR 0.19 (0.15); Fellow eyes-0.1 (0.07)); the others were normal sighted controls (visual acuity in the right eyes-0.04 (0.15); left eyes-0.08 (0.07)). Results: In respect of the binocular maximum reading speed (MRS), significant differences were Found between the children with microstrabismic amblyopia and the normal controls (p = 0.03): whereas the controls achieved a binocular MRS of 200.4 (11) wpm (words per minute), the children with unilateral amblyopia achieved only a binocular MRS of 172.9 (43.9) wpm. No significant differences between the two groups were found in respect of the binocular logMAR visual acuity and reading acuity (p>0.05). For the monocular reading performance, significant impairment was found in the amblyopic eyes, whereas no significant differences were found between the sound fellow eyes of the amblyopic children and the control group. Conclusion: in binocular MRS, significant differences could be found between children with microstrabismic amblyopia and normal controls. This result indicates the presence of a functionally relevant reading impairment, even though the binocular visual acuity and reading acuity were both comparable with the control group. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]