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International audience; Understanding the immune responses elicited by SARS-CoV-2 infection is critical in terms of protection against reinfection and, thus, for public health policy and vaccine development for COVID-19. In this study, using either live SARS-CoV-2 particles or retroviruses pseudotyped with the SARS-CoV-2 S viral surface protein (Spike), we studied the neutralizing antibody (nAb) response in serum samples from a cohort of 140 SARS-CoV-2 qPCR-confirmed infections, including patients with mild symptoms and also more severe forms, including those that required intensive care. We show that nAb titers correlated strongly with disease severity and with anti-spike IgG levels. Indeed, patients from intensive care units exhibited high nAb titers; conversely, patients with milder disease symptoms had heterogeneous nAb titers, and asymptomatic or exclusive outpatient-care patients had no or low nAbs. We found that nAb activity in SARS-CoV-2-infected patients displayed a relatively rapid decline after recovery compared to individuals infected with other coronaviruses. Moreover, we found an absence of cross-neutralization between endemic coronaviruses and SARS-CoV-2, indicating that previous infection by human coronaviruses may not generate protective nAbs against SARS-CoV-2. Finally, we found that the D614G mutation in the spike protein, which has recently been identified as the current major variant in Europe, does not allow neutralization escape. Altogether, our results contribute to our understanding of the immune correlates of SARS-CoV-2-induced disease, and rapid evaluation of the role of the humoral response in the pathogenesis of SARS-CoV-2 is warranted.

The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), a β-coronavirus, is the causative agent of the COVID-19 pandemic. Like for other coronaviruses, its particles are composed of four structural proteins: spike (S), envelope (E), membrane (M), and nucleoprotein (N) proteins. The involvement of each of these proteins and their interactions are critical for assembly and production of β-coronavirus particles. Here, we sought to characterize the interplay of SARS-CoV-2 structural proteins during the viral assembly process. By combining biochemical and imaging assays in infected versus transfected cells, we show that E and M regulate intracellular trafficking of S as well as its intracellular processing. Indeed, the imaging data reveal that S is relocalized at endoplasmic reticulum (ER)-Golgi intermediate compartment (ERGIC) or Golgi compartments upon coexpression of E or M, as observed in SARS-CoV-2-infected cells, which prevents syncytia formation. We show that a C-terminal retrieval motif in the cytoplasmic tail of S is required for its M-mediated retention in the ERGIC, whereas E induces S retention by modulating the cell secretory pathway. We also highlight that E and M induce a specific maturation of N-glycosylation of S, independently of the regulation of its localization, with a profile that is observed both in infected cells and in purified viral particles. Finally, we show that E, M, and N are required for optimal production of virus-like-particles. Altogether, these results highlight how E and M proteins may influence the properties of S proteins and promote the assembly of SARS-CoV-2 viral particles.

Hepatitis C virus (HCV) is detected in the sera of infected patients as lipidated infectious particles of very-low density. HCV is an enveloped virus whose assembly of viral particles occurs at the endoplasmic reticulum membrane following sequential cleavage of its polyprotein and its maturation as structural and non-structural viral proteins. In this work, we aimed at better understanding the mechanisms of assembly, envelopment and secretion of infectious particles. In a first study, we highlighted the functional connection between replication complexes and assembly sites. In a second study, we showed that p7 dose-dependently slows down the ER-to-Golgi traffic, leading to intracellular retention of E2 viral glycoprotein. In addition, we showed that cleavage of an E2p7 precursor protein controls E2 intracellular expression and secretion levels of subviral particles and infectious virions. Finally, we also highlighted that p7 N-terminal extremity governs the specific infectivity of the infectious particles by coordinating the encountering of the nucleocapsid components with the glycoproteins and the envelopment of the nucleocapsids. In a third study, we discovered specific functions and factors from serum, producer cells, and HCV sequences that modulate lipidation of viral particles during their assembly and secretion. Altogether, these different works contributed at better understanding the steps of HCV assembly and the mechanisms modulating i) the transfer of viral RNAs from replication complexes to assembly sites, ii) the encountering of the nucleocapsids and glycoproteins followed by virion envelopment, and finally, iii) the acquisition of lipids by viral particles; Le virus de l'hépatite C (VHC) est détecté dans les sérums de patients infectés sous forme de particules infectieuses lipidées de très faibles densités. Le VHC est un virus enveloppé dont l'assemblage de particules virales se produit à la membrane du réticulum endoplasmique consécutivement au clivage séquentiel de sa polyprotéine et à sa maturation en protéines structurales et non structurales. Dans ce travail, nous avons cherché à mieux comprendre les mécanismes d'assemblage, d'enveloppement et de sécrétion des particules infectieuses. Dans une première étude, nous avons montré la connexion fonctionnelle entre les complexes de réplication et les sites d'assemblage. Dans une seconde étude, nous avons montré que p7 ralentissait de manière dose-dépendante le trafic ER-Golgi, conduisant à une rétention intracellulaire de la glycoprotéine virale E2. En outre, nous avons montré que le clivage du précurseur protéique E2p7 contrôle l'expression intracellulaire E2 et les niveaux de sécrétion des particules subvirales et des virions infectieux. Enfin, nous avons également mis en évidence que l'extrémité N-terminale de p7 gouverne l'infectivité spécifique des particules en coordonnant la rencontre des composants de la nucléocapside avec les glycoprotéines, mais aussi l'enveloppement de la nucléocapside. Dans une troisième étude, nous avons découvert des fonctions et des facteurs spécifiques du sérum, des cellules productrices et des séquences du VHC qui modulent la lipidation des particules virales au cours de leur assemblage et de leur sécrétion. Au total, ces différents travaux ont contribué à mieux comprendre les étapes de l'assemblage du VHC et les mécanismes modulant i) le transfert des ARN viraux des complexes de réplication vers les sites d’assemblage, ii) la rencontre des nucléocapsides et des glycoprotéines, et enfin, iii) l'acquisition de lipides par des particules virales

Viroporins are small transmembrane proteins with ion channel activities modulating properties of intracellular membranes that have diverse proviral functions. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) encodes a viroporin, p7, acting during assembly, envelopment and secretion of viral particles (VP). HCV p7 is released from the viral polyprotein through cleavage at E2-p7 and p7-NS2 junctions by signal peptidase, but also exists as an E2p7 precursor, of poorly defined properties. Here, we found that ectopic p7 expression in HCVcc-infected cells reduced secretion of particle-associated E2 glycoproteins. Using biochemical assays, we show that p7 dose-dependently slows down the ER-to-Golgi traffic, leading to intracellular retention of E2, which suggested that timely E2p7 cleavage and p7 liberation are critical events to control E2 levels. By studying HCV mutants with accelerated E2p7 processing, we demonstrate that E2p7 cleavage controls E2 intracellular expression and secretion levels of nucleocapsid-free subviral particles and infectious virions. In addition, our imaging data reveal that, following p7 liberation, the amino-terminus of p7 is exposed towards the cytosol and coordinates the encounter between NS5A and NS2-based assembly sites loaded with E1E2 glycoproteins, which subsequently leads to nucleocapsid envelopment. We identify punctual mutants at p7 membrane interface that, by abrogating NS2/NS5A interaction, are defective for transmission of infectivity owing to decreased secretion of core and RNA and to increased secretion of non/partially-enveloped particles. Altogether, our results indicate that the retarded E2p7 precursor cleavage is essential to regulate the intracellular and secreted levels of E2 through p7-mediated modulation of the cell secretory pathway and to unmask critical novel assembly functions located at p7 amino-terminus., Author summary Viroporins are small transmembrane viral proteins with ion channel activities modulating properties of intracellular membranes, which impacts several fundamental biological processes such as trafficking, ion fluxes as well as connections and exchanges between organelles. Hepatitis C virus (HCV) encodes a viroporin, p7, acting during assembly, envelopment and secretion of viral particles. HCV p7 is produced by cleavage from the HCV polyprotein but also exists as an E2p7 precursor, of poorly defined properties. In this study, we have explored how the retarded cleavage between E2 glycoprotein and p7 viroporin could regulate their functions associated to virion assembly and/or perturbation of cellular membrane processes. Specifically, we demonstrate that p7 is able to regulate the cell secretory pathway, which induces the intracellular retention of HCV glycoproteins and favors assembly of HCV particles. Our study also identifies a novel assembly function located at p7 amino-terminus that is unmasked through E2p7-regulated processing and that controls the infectivity of different types of released viral particles. Altogether, our results underscore a critical post-translational control of assembly and secretion of HCV particles that governs their specific infectivity.

International audience; Daclatasvir is a direct-acting antiviral agent and potent inhibitor of NS5A, which is involved in replication of the hepatitis C virus (HCV) genome, presumably via membranous web shaping, and assembly of new virions, likely via transfer of the HCV RNA genome to viral particle assembly sites. Daclatasvir inhibits the formation of new membranous web structures and, ultimately, of replication complex vesicles, but also inhibits an early assembly step. We investigated the relationship between daclatasvir-induced clustering of HCV proteins, intracellular localization of viral RNAs and inhibition of viral particle assembly.; HCVcc particles were produced from Huh7.5 hepatocarcinoma cells in presence of daclatasvir for short time periods. Infectivity as well as production of physical particles were quantified and producer cells were subjected to subcellular fractionation. Intracellular colocalization between core, E2, NS5A, NS4B proteins, and viral RNAs was quantitatively analyzed by confocal microscopy and by structured illumination microscopy.; Short exposure of HCV-infected cells to daclatasvir reduced viral assembly and induced clustering of structural proteins with non-structural HCV proteins, including core, E2, NS4B and NS5A. These clustered structures appeared to be inactive assembly platforms, likely owing to loss of functional connection with replication complexes. Daclatasvir greatly reduced delivery of viral genomes to these core clusters without altering HCV RNA colocalization with NS5A. In contrast, daclatasvir neither induced clustered structures nor inhibited HCV assembly in cells infected with a daclatasvir-resistant mutant (NS5A-Y93H), indicating that daclatasvir targets a mutual, specific function of NS5A inhibiting both processes.; In addition to inhibiting replication complex biogenesis, daclatasvir prevents viral assembly by blocking transfer of the viral genome to assembly sites. This leads to clustering of HCV proteins, because viral particles and replication complex vesicles cannot form and/or egress. This dual mode of action of daclatasvir could explain its efficacy in blocking HCV replication in cultured cells and in treatment of patients with HCV infection.