Search

Although mammalian reovirus exhibits only limited pathogenicity in humans, it has been, and still remains, instrumental in studies of viral replication and pathogenesis. Generally considered as cytolytic, this virus can sometimes establish long-term persistent infections in tissue culture. In fact, in this context, it constitutes one widely used model to demonstrate coevolution between virus and host cells. Initially limited to the murine L929 fibroblasts model, further studies in different cell types appeared in the last few years. Establishment of viral persistence could also become a preferred approach to isolate new viruses that are better adapted to their applications in virotherapy, for example as oncolytic agents against human or animal cancers. A better understanding of the persistence phenomenon, especially of viral genes involved, is thus essential. The development of new tools, such as reverse genetics, appears very promising to achieve these objectives. Actually, this last approach allows us to establish the biological significance of mutations found on viruses selected during viral persistence.

As with most viruses, mammalian reovirus can be recognized and attacked by the host-cell interferon response network. Similarly, many viruses have developed resistance mechanisms to counteract the host-cell response at different points of this response. Reflecting the complexity of the interferon signaling pathways as well as the resulting antiviral response, viruses can—and often have—evolved many determinants to interfere with this innate immune response and allow viral replication. In the last few years, it has been evidenced that mammalian reovirus encodes many different determinants that are involved in regulating the induction of the interferon response or in interfering with the action of interferon-stimulated gene products. In this brief review, we present our current understanding of the different reovirus proteins known to be involved, introduce their postulated modes of action, and raise current questions that may lead to further investigations.

Upon viral infection, a tug of war is triggered between host cells and viruses to maintain/gain control of vital cellular functions, the result of which will ultimately dictate the fate of the host cell. Among these essential cellular functions, alternative splicing (AS) is an important RNA maturation step that allows exons, or parts of exons, and introns to be retained in mature transcripts, thereby expanding proteome diversity and function. AS is widespread in higher eukaryotes, as it is estimated that nearly all genes in humans are alternatively spliced. Recent evidence has shown that upon infection by numerous viruses, the AS landscape of host‐cells is affected. In this review, we summarize recent advances in our understanding of how virus infection impacts the AS of cellular transcripts. We also present various molecular mechanisms allowing viruses to modulate cellular AS. Finally, the functional consequences of these changes in the RNA splicing signatures during virus–host interactions are discussed. This article is categorized under:RNA in Disease and Development > RNA in DiseaseRNA Processing > Splicing Regulation/Alternative Splicing

In a previous study, a mammalian orthoreovirus mutant was isolated based on its increased ability to infect interferon-defective Vero cells and was referred to as Vero-cells-adapted virus (VeroAV). This virus exhibits reduced ability to resist the antiviral effect of interferon. In the present study, the complete genome sequence of VeroAV was first determined. Reverse genetics was then used to identify a unique mutation on the S1 gene, overlapping the σ1 and σ1 s reading frame, resulting in increased sensitivity to interferon. A virus lacking σ1 s expression consecutive to mutation of its initiation codon was then shown to exhibit a further increase in sensitivity to interferon, supporting the idea that σ1 s is the viral protein responsible. This identification of a new determinant of reovirus sensitivity to interferon gives credentials to the idea that multiple reovirus genes are responsible for the level of interferon induction and susceptibility to the interferon-induced antiviral activities.

In the last few years, the development of a plasmid-based reverse genetics system for mammalian reovirus has allowed the production and characterization of mutant viruses. This could be especially significant in the optimization of reovirus strains for virotherapeutic applications, either as gene vectors or oncolytic viruses. The genome of a mutant virus exhibiting increased sensitivity to interferon was completely sequenced and compared with its parental virus. Viruses corresponding to either the parental or mutant viruses were then rescued by reverse genetics and shown to exhibit the expected phenotypes. Systematic rescue of different viruses harboring either of the four parental genes in a mutant virus backbone, or reciprocally, indicated that a single amino acid substitution in one of λ2 methyltransferase domains is the major determinant of the difference in interferon sensitivity between these two viruses., Au cours des dernières années, la mise au point de la génétique inverse pour les réovirus de mammifères a permis la production et la caractérisation de virus mutants. Ceci pourrait être spécialement important pour l'optimisation de souches virales en vue d'applications thérapeutiques, comme vecteurs de gènes ou virus oncolytiques. Le génome d'un virus mutant démontrant une sensibilité accrue à l'interféron a été complètement séquencé et comparé au virus parental. Des virus correspondant au virus parental ou mutant ont ensuite été récupérés par génétique inverse et présentaient les phénotypes attendus. La récupération systématique de différents virus possédant un des quatre gènes parentaux dans un fond génétique du virus mutant, et réciproquement, a indiqué qu'une seule substitution d'acide aminé dans un des deux domaines méthyltransférase de λ2 est le déterminant majeur de la différence de sensibilité à l'interféron entre ces deux virus.

In the course of previous works, it was observed that the virus laboratory stock (T3DS) differs in sequence from the virus encoded by the ten plasmids currently in use in many laboratories (T3DK), and derived from a different original virus stock. Seven proteins are affected by these sequence differences. In the present study, replication of T3DK was shown to be more sensitive to the antiviral effect of interferon. Infection by the T3DK virus was also shown to induce the production of higher amount of β and α-interferons compared to T3DS. Two proteins, the μ2 and λ2 proteins, were found to be responsible for increased sensitivity to interferon while both μ2 and λ1 are responsible for increased interferon secretion. Altogether this supports the idea that multiple reovirus proteins are involved in the control of induction of interferon and virus sensitivity to the interferon-induced response. While interrelated, interferon induction and sensitivity can be separated by defined gene combinations. While both μ2 and λ2 were previously suspected of a role in the control of the interferon response, other proteins are also likely involved, as first shown here for λ1. This also further stresses that due caution should be exerted when comparing different virus isolates with different genetic background.

Addition of exogenous peptide sequences on viral capsids is a powerful approach to study the process of viral infection or to retarget viruses toward defined cell types. Until recently, it was not possible to manipulate the genome of mammalian reovirus and this was an obstacle to the addition of exogenous sequence tags onto the capsid of a replicating virus. This obstacle has now been overcome by the advent of the plasmid-based reverse genetics system. In the present study, reverse genetics was used to introduce different exogenous peptides, up to 40 amino acids long, at the carboxyl-terminal end of the σ1 outer capsid protein. The tagged viruses obtained were infectious, produce plaques of similar size, and could be easily propagated at hight titers. However, attempts to introduce a 750 nucleotides-long sequence failed, even when it was added after the stop codon, suggesting a possible size limitation at the nucleic acid level., L'addition aux capsides virales de séquences peptidiques exogènes est une approche puissante pour l'étude des processus d'infection virale ou pour cibler des virus vers des types cellulaires bien définis. Jusqu'à récemment, il n'était pas possible de manipuler le génome du réovirus de mammifères et ceci était un obstacle à l'addition de telles étiquettes exogènes sur la capside d'un virus pouvant se répliquer. Cet obstacle a maintenant été surmonté par la mise au point d'un système de génétique inverse à base de plasmides. Dans la présente étude, la génétique inverse a été utilisée pour introduire différents peptides exogènes, jusqu'à 40 acides aminés de longueur, à l'extrémité carboxyle de la protéine de capside externe σ1. Les virus obtenus étaient infectieux, produisent des plages de taille similaire, et peuvent être propagés facilement. Cependant, les efforts pour introduire une séquence de 750 nucléotides de longueur ont été infructueux, même lorsqu'un codon de terminaison était introduit avant celle-ci, suggérant une limite de taille au niveau des acides nucléiques.

Mammalian reoviruses exhibit a propensity to replicate in transformed cells. It is currently believed that the interferon-inducible RNA-dependent protein kinase (PKR), an intracellular host-cell resistance factor that is inhibited by an activatedRas-dependent pathway in transformed cells, is responsible for this discrimination. In the present study, reovirus isolates differing in their sensitivity to interferon were obtained by chemical mutagenesis, and examined for their replicative properties in parental andRas-transformed mouse NIH-3T3 cells. It was observed that most isolates can bypass resistance mechanisms of parental cells at high m.o.i., and that there is a correlation between the ability to discriminate between transformed and parental cells, and interferon sensitivity. Most interestingly, an interferon-hypersensitive mutant virus was more dependent onRasactivation than any other viral isolate. Altogether, this suggests that optimal reovirus isolates could be selected to attack tumour cells depending on the nature of the alterations in interferon-inducible pathways found in these cells.

Retroviruses use unusual recoding strategies to synthesize the Gag-Pol polyprotein precursor of viral enzymes. In human immunodeficiency virus, ribosomes translating full-length viral RNA can shift back by 1 nucleotide at a specific site defined by the presence of both a slippery sequence and a downstream stimulatory element made of an extensive secondary structure. This so-called frameshift mechanism could become a target for the development of novel antiviral strategies. A different recoding strategy is used by other retroviruses, such as murine leukemia viruses, to synthesize the Gag-Pol precursor; in this case, a stop codon is suppressed in a readthrough process, again due to the presence of a specific structure adopted by the mRNA. Development of antiframeshift agents will greatly benefit from the availability of a simple animal and virus model. For this purpose, the murine leukemia virus readthrough region was rendered inactive by mutagenesis and the frameshift region of human immunodeficiency virus was inserted to generate a chimeric provirus. This substitution of readthrough by frameshift allows the synthesis of viral proteins, and the chimeric provirus sequence was found to generate infectious viruses. This system could be a most interesting alternative to study ribosomal frameshift in the context of a virus amenable to the use of a simple animal model.

In a recent study, the serotype 3 Dearing strain of mammalian orthoreovirus was adapted to Vero cells; cells that exhibit a limited ability to support the early steps of reovirus uncoating and are unable to produce interferon as an antiviral response upon infection. The Vero cell-adapted virus (VeroAV) exhibits amino acids substitutions in both the σ1 and μ1 outer capsid proteins but no changes in the σ3 protein. Accordingly, the virus was shown not to behave as a classical uncoating mutant. In the present study, an increased ability of the virus to bind at the Vero cell surface was observed and is likely associated with an increased ability to bind onto cell-surface sialic acid residues. In addition, the kinetics of μ1 disassembly from the virions appears to be altered. The plasmid-based reverse genetics approach confirmed the importance of σ1 amino acids substitutions in VeroAV's ability to efficiently infect Vero cells, although μ1 co-adaptation appears necessary to optimize viral infection. This approach of combining in vitro selection of reoviruses with reverse genetics to identify pertinent amino acids substitutions appears promising in the context of eventual reovirus modification to increase its potential as an oncolytic virus., Dans une étude récente, le réovirus de sérotype 3 (souche Dearing) a été adapté aux cellules Vero, cellules qui possèdent une capacité limitée à supporter les étapes précoces de décapsidation de réovirus et qui sont incapables de produire de l'interféron comme réponse antivirale lorsqu'elles sont infectées. Le virus adapté (VeroAV) possède des substitutions d'acides aminés au niveau des protéines de capside externe σ1 et μ1, mais ne présente pas de changement au niveau de la protéine σ3. Comme attendu, le virus ne se comporte donc pas comme un mutant de décapsidation classique. Dans la présente étude, une augmentation de la capacité du virus à se fixer à la surface des cellules Vero a été observée et est probablement associée à une augmentation de la fixation aux acides sialiques de la surface cellulaire. De plus, la cinétique de relâche de μ1 à partir des virions semble altérée. L'approche de génétique inverse a permis de confirmer l'importance des substitutions d'acides aminés de la protéine σ1 dans la capacité de VeroAV à infecter les cellules Vero de manière efficace, bien que la coadaptation de μ1 apparaisse nécessaire pour optimiser l'infection virale. Cette approche combinant la sélection in vitro de réovirus à la génétique inverse pour découvrir des substitutions importantes d'acides aminés apparaît prometteuse dans le contexte de la modification de réovirus afin d'accroître son potentiel en tant que virus oncolytique.

Introduction of amino acids substitutions in murine leukemia virus genome is a powerful method to determine the relative importance of various viral factors in pathogenesis. However, introduction of such amino acids substitution could result in viruses at a selective disadvantage, and eventual selection of revertants. It is thus essential to verify if the mutation is maintained stably in replicating virus and in infected tumor cells. In the present study, viral nucleic acid sequences from diseased animals were determined using different approaches. Small blood samples were found adequate for direct RNA extraction and reverse transcriptase-PCR amplification followed by automated DNA sequencing. Alternatively, replication-competent viruses were recovered specifically by applying blood samples onto permissive cells; viral RNA is then extracted from tissue culture medium and similarly sequenced. Tissue samples were also used to amplify viral sequences from tumors DNA while small pieces of tumors tissues were applied onto permissive cells to isolate replicating viruses. The combined experimental approach was used to show sequence conservation using a mutant altered in the intracytoplasmic region of viral envelope glycoprotein. No difference was observed between viruses recovered directly from the animal and those amplified onto cultured cells.

Establishment of viral persistence in cell culture has previously led to the selection of mammalian reovirus mutants, although very few of those have been characterized in details. In the present study, reovirus was adapted to Vero cells that, in contrast to classically-used L929 cells, are inefficient in supporting the early steps of reovirus uncoating and are also unable to produce interferon as an antiviral response once infection occurs. The Vero cell-adapted reovirus exhibits amino acids substitutions in both the σ1 and μ1 proteins. This contrasts with uncoating mutants from persistently-infected L929 cells, and various other cell types, that generally harbor amino acids substitutions in the σ3 outer capsid protein. The Vero cell-adapted virus remained sensitive to an inhibitor of lysosomal proteases; furthermore, in the absence of selective pressure for its maintenance, t he virus has partially lost its ability to resist interferon. The positions of the amino acids substitutions on the known protein structures suggest an effect on binding of the viral σ1 protein to the cell surface and on μ1 disassembly from the outer capsid., L'établissement de la persistance virale en culture cellulaire a précédemment mené à la sélection de mutants de réovirus, bien que peu d'entre eux aient été caractérisés en détail. Dans la présence étude, le réovirus a été adapté aux cellules Vero qui, contrairement aux cellules L929 classiquement utilisées, sont peu efficaces pour les étapes précoces de décapsidation de réovirus et sont également incapables de produire de l'interféron comme réponse antivirale, lorsqu'infectées. Le réovirus adapté aux cellules Vero porte des substitutions d'acides aminés à la fois dans les protéines σ1 et μ1. Ceci contraste avec les mutants de décapsidation des cellules L929 infectées de manière persistante, aussi bien que chez divers autres types de cellules, qui présentent généralement des substitutions d'acides aminés au niveau de la protéine de capside externe σ3. Le virus adapté aux cellules Vero demeure sensible à un inhibiteur de protéases lysosomales; de plus, en absence de pression de sélection, le virus a perdu en partie sa capacité à résister à l'interféron. La position des différentes substitutions d'acides aminés sur la structure connue de la protéine suggère un effet sur la fixation de la protéine virale σ1 à la surface cellulaire et sur l'élimination de la protéine μ1 de la capside externe du virus.

Mammalian reoviruses exhibit a large host range and infected cells are generally killed; however, most studies examined only a few cell types and host species, and are probably not representative of all possible interactions between virus and host cell. Many questions thus remain concerning the nature of cellular factors that affect viral replication and cell death. In the present work, it was observed that replication of the classical mammalian reovirus serotype 3 Dearing in a bat epithelial cell line, Tb1.Lu, does not result in cell lysis and is rapidly reduced to very low levels. Prior uncoating of virions by chymotrypsin treatment, to generate infectious subviral particles, increased the initial level of infection but without any significant effect on further viral replication or cell survival. Infected cells remain resistant to virus reinfection and secrete an antiviral factor, most likely interferon, that is protective against the unrelated encephalomyocarditis virus. Although, the transformed status of a cell is believed to promote reovirus replication and viral “oncolysis”, resistant Tb1.Lu cells exhibit a classical phenotype of transformed cells by forming colonies in semisolid soft agar medium. Further transduction of Tb.Lu cells with a constitutively-active Ras oncogene does not seem cell growth or reovirus effect on these cells. Infected Tb1.Lu cells can produce low-level of infectious virus for a long time without any apparent effect, although these cells are resistant to reinfection. The results suggest that Tb1.Lu cells can mount an unusual antiviral response. Specific properties of bat cells may thus be in part responsible for the ability of the animals to act as reservoirs for viruses in general and for novel reoviruses in particular. Their peculiar resistance to cell lysis also makes Tb1.Lu cells an attractive model to study the cellular and viral factors that determine the ability of reovirus to replicate and destroy infected cells., Les réovirus de mammifères possèdent un large spectre d'hôtes et les cellules infectées sont généralement tuées par l'infection ; cependant, la plupart des études utilisent seulement certains types de cellules provenant de quelques espèces animales. Ceci n'est sans doute pas représentatif de toutes les interactions possibles entre virus et cellule hôte. Plusieurs questions demeurent concernant la nature des facteurs cellulaires qui affectent la réplication virale et la mort cellulaire. Dans la présente étude, il a été observé que la réplication du classique réovirus de mammifères (sérotype 3 Dearing) dans une lignée de cellules épithéliales de chauve-souris, Tb1.Lu, n'entraîne pas la lyse cellulaire et est rapidement réduite à un très faible niveau. La décapsidation des virions par traitement à la chymotrypsine, afin de générer des particules dites « sous-virales infectieuses », augmente le niveau initial d'infection sans effet significatif sur la réplication virale ou la survie cellulaire. Les cellules infectées demeurent résistantes à la réinfection et sécrètent un facteur antiviral, probablement de l'interféron, qui peut protéger contre l'infection par le virus de l'encéphalomyocardite. Malgré le fait que le statut de transformation cellulaire est considéré comme pouvant promouvoir la réplication de réovirus et l'oncolyse virale, les cellules Tb1.Lu résistantes démontrent un phénotype classique de cellules transformées et forment des colonies en milieu semi-solide contenant de l'agar. La transduction de cellules Tb1.Lu avec un oncogène Ras constitutivement actif ne semble pas affecter la croissance cellulaire ni la réplication virale. Les cellules Tb1.Lu infectées peuvent produire une faible quantité de virus infectieux pour une longue période sans effet apparent, malgré le fait que ces cellules soient résistantes à la réinfection. Ces résultats suggèrent que les cellules Tb1.Lu peuvent développer une réponse antivirale inhabituelle. Les propriétés spécifiques des cellules de chauve-souris pourraient donc être en partie responsables de la capacité de ces animaux à agir comme réservoirs de virus en général et de nouveaux réovirus en particulier. Leur résistance particulière à la lyse cellulaire fait aussi de ces cellules un modèle attrayant pour étudier les facteurs cellulaires et viraux qui déterminent la capacité de réovirus à se répliquer et à détruire les cellules infectées.

Many temperature-sensitive mutants have been isolated in early studies of mammalian reovirus. However, the bio- logical properties and nature of the genetic alterations remain incompletely explored for most of these mutants. The mutation harbored by the tsI138 mutant was already assigned to the L3 gene encoding the l1 protein. In the present study, this mu- tant was further studied as a possible tool to establish the role of the putative l1 enzymatic activities in viral multiplication. It was observed that synthesis of viral proteins is only marginally reduced, while it was difficult to recover viral particles at the nonpermissive temperature. A single nucleotide substitution resulting in an amino acid change was found; the position of this amino acid is consistent with a probable defect in assembly of the inner capsid at the nonpermissive temperature., Plusieurs mutants thermosensibles ont été rapidement isolés dès le début de l’étude du réovirus de mammifères. Cependant, les propriétés biologiques et la nature des changements génétiques demeurent peu connues pour la plupart de ces mutants. La mutation au sein du mutant tsI138 a déjà été localisée comme étant présente sur le gène L3 codant pour la protéine l1. Dans la présente étude, ce mutant a été étudié davantage comme outil possible pour établir le rôle des poten- tielles activités enzymatiques de l1 dans la multiplication virale. Il a été observé que la synthèse des protéines virales est peu affectée alors qu’il est difficile de récupérer des particules virales à température non permissive. La substitution d’un seul nucléotide, entraînant le changement d’un acide aminé, a été retrouvée; la position de cet acide aminé est compatible avec un défaut probable d’assemblage de la capside interne à la température non permissive.

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) has been shown to exhibit a specific basolateral release in polarized epithelial cells. Previous investigators have used vaccinia virus recombinants expressing HIV proteins to demonstrate that virus release is nonpolarized in the absence of viral envelope glycoproteins. In this study, we developed a transient expression system which allows the use of Madin-Darby canine kidney polarized epithelial cells directly grown on semipermeable membranes. This procedure allowed us to investigate polarized HIV viral budding following introduction of proviral DNA constructs. Expression of env gene products in trans demonstrated the ability to polarize env-negative viruses in a dose-dependent manner. The targeting signal for polarized virus release was shown to be present in the envelope gp41 transmembrane protein and absent from the gp120 portion of env. At least part of this signal is within the gp41 intracytoplasmic domain. Mutants of the p17gag matrix protein were shown to be nonpolarized only when unable to interact with the envelope glycoproteins. Together, these data are consistent with a model of polarized virus budding in which capsid proteins, lacking a targeting signal, are targeted for specific basolateral release via an interaction of p17 with the envelope glycoprotein containing the polarization signal in its intracytoplasmic domain.

Recent data have shown that the reovirus sigma 3 protein is the only viral product required for proteolytic conversion of the viral mu 1 protein to mu 1C. In an effort to determine the importance of a sigma 3 region exhibiting sequence similarity to a functionally important region of picornaviral proteases, we analyzed proteins produced in COS cells cotransfected with expression vectors encoding mu 1 and either wild-type or mutated forms of sigma 3. This approach revealed that association with sigma 3 contributes to the stability of mu 1-related polypeptides (mu 1 + mu 1C), but conservation of the sigma 3 region related to picornaviral proteases is not required for proteolytic conversion of mu 1 to mu 1C.

In this study, we examined the viral multiplication of human reovirus serotype 3 in mammalian cell lines of different species and tissue origins. All cell lines supported viral multiplication to a similar extent, although the kinetics was significantly different in some of these lines. The appearance of infectious virus was delayed in few cell lines. These cell lines also exhibited a much slower rate of cell killing, and in contrast to the others, did not exhibit an inhibition of the synthesis of host-cell proteins. We conclude that the inhibition correlates with rapid cell killing and viral multiplication, while being unrelated to efficient total viral production.Key words: reovirus, protein synthesis inhibition, viral multiplication, cytopathic effects.

Mammalian reovirus is an oncolytic virus that discriminates between parental and cancer cells. This is due in part to altered interferon-induced antiviral response in cancer cells. However, understanding of viral and cellular determinants involved remains largely incomplete. In our current work, two different approaches were used to identify reovirus variants exhibiting increased interferon sensitivity. (1) Chemical mutagenesis followed by selection of small plaques mutants in the presence of interferon; (2) Selection on interferon-deficient cells in order to relieve the pressure to keep interferon resistance. Virus variants were sequenced and plasmid-based reverse genetics was used to examine the effect of each mutation. A single amino acid substitution in the 2′-O methyltransferase of viral mRNA capping enzyme was responsible for 10–100 fold increased interferon sensitivity for one variant; work is under progress for additional viruses. In parallel, we took advantage of these well genetically-defined viruses to investigate host-cell response using RNA-Seq. A large number of induced genes was observed in wild-type virus-infected cells, to an extent that was not revealed by previously-used approaches. Most induced genes encode sensors or antiviral response determinants (ISG, IFIT, IRF, Mx). They were similarly induced by the wild-type and interferon-sensitive virus. This suggests that altered RNA capping increases virus’ sensitivity to interferon-induced antiviral factors rather than induction of interferon signaling. Similar analysis with other viruses of different interferon sensitivity, in parental and transformed cells, should allow to better comprehend the antiviral response during reovirus infection and could contribute to the design of better oncolytic viruses.

The human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) requires a programmed −1 translational frameshift event to synthesize the precursor of its enzymes, Gag–Pol, when ribosomes from the infected cells translate the full-length viral messenger RNA. Translation of the same RNA according to conventional translational rules produces Gag, the precursor of the structural proteins of the virus. The efficiency of the frameshift controls the ratio of Gag–Pol to Gag, which is critical for viral infectivity. The Moloney murine leukemia virus (MoMuLV) uses a different strategy, the programmed readthrough of a stop codon, to synthesize Gag–Pol. In this study, we investigated whether different forms of the HIV-1 frameshift region can functionally replace the readthrough signal in MoMuLV. Chimeric proviral DNAs were obtained by inserting into the MoMuLV genome the HIV-1 frameshift region encompassing the slippery sequence where the frameshift occurs, followed by the frameshift stimulatory signal. The inserted signal was either a simple stem-loop, previously considered as the stimulatory signal, or a longer bulged helix, now shown to be the complete stimulatory signal, or a mutated version of the complete signal with a three-nucleotide deletion. Although the three chimeric viruses can propagate essentially as the wild-type virus in NIH 3T3 cells, single-round infectivity assays revealed that the infectivity of the chimeric virions is about three to fivefold lower than that of the wild-type virions, depending upon the nature of the frameshift signal. It was also observed that the Gag–Pol to Gag ratio was decreased about two to threefold in chimeric virions. Comparison of the readthrough efficiency of MoMuLV to the HIV-1 frameshift efficiency, by monitoring the expression of a luciferase reporter in cultured cells, revealed that the frameshift efficiencies were only 30–60% of the readthrough efficiency. Altogether, these observations indicate that replacement of the readthrough region of MoMuLV with the frameshift region of HIV-1 results in virions that are replication competent, although less infectious than wild-type MoMuLV. This type of chimera could provide an interesting tool for in vivo studies of novel drugs targeted against the HIV-1 frameshift event.

Maturation and release of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is targeted at the pseudopod of infected mononuclear cells. However, the intracellular mechanism or targeting signals leading to this polarized viral maturation are yet to be identified. We have recently demonstrated the presence of a functional YXXL motif for specific targeting of HIV-1 virions to the basolateral membrane surface in polarized epithelial Madin-Darby canine kidney cells (MDCK). Site-directed mutagenesis was used to demonstrate that the membrane-proximal tyrosine in the intracytoplasmic tail of the HIV-1 transmembrane glycoprotein (gp41) is an essential component of this signal. In the present study, immunolocalization of viral budding allowed us to establish that this tyrosine-based signal is involved in determining the exact site of viral release at the surface of infected mononuclear cells. Substitution of the critical tyrosine residue was also shown to increase the amount of envelope glycoprotein at the cell surface, supporting previous suggestions that the tyrosine-based motif can promote endocytosis. Although alteration of the dual polarization-endocytosis motif did not affect the infectivity of cell-free virus, it could play a key role in cell-to-cell viral transmission. Accordingly, chronically infected lymphocytes showed a reduced ability to transmit the mutant virus to a cocultivated cell line. Overall, our data indicate that the YXXL targeting motif of HIV is active in various cell types and could play an important role in viral propagation; this may constitute an alternative target for HIV therapeutics and vaccine development.

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection ultimately leads to the destruction of the CD4+ lymphocyte subset and the onset of AIDS. In recent years, several gene therapy procedures making use of retroviral vectors that selectively target HIV susceptible cells have been proposed in order to interfere with HIV productive infection. However, the HIV glycoproteins' inability to be incorporated in other heterologous retroviruses considerably limits true HIV cell tropism of such vectors. We now report the use of murine leukemia virus (MuLV) viral particles harboring a truncated form of the HIV glycoprotein for specific gene delivery. Reporter lacZ gene transfer was determined to be appropriately specific to CD4+ cells when HeLaCD4 cells or peripheral blood lymphocytes (PBLs) were infected with these pseudotyped MuLV virus vectors. In contrast, MuLV viruses harboring amphotropic MuLV envelope glycoproteins displayed a broad and nonspecific infection of PBL subpopulations. This new approach, taking advantage of the ability of truncated HIV envelope glycoproteins to be incorporated into heterologous retroviral particles, may foreseeably be used in future interventions based on the coordinated delivery of therapeutic gene products specifically to cell types susceptible to HIV infection.

In the present study we report the establishment and characterization of an SC1 cell line persistently infected by reovirus. We observed that a significant percentage of SC1 cells was resistant to cell lysis upon infection with non-defective reovirus stocks. The apparent resistance of SC1 cells to the virus-induced inhibition of protein synthesis is probably an important factor favoring the establishment of such a persistence. The remaining cells, obtained following reovirus infection at a high multiplicity of infection, were kept as a continuous cell line and shown to have normal growth rate. They also released a high titer of virus that did not appear to differ from the original stock in neither infectivity nor genomic pattern. Electron microscopic examination further confirmed the presence of well-developed viral inclusions in the persistently infected cells. These cells were resistant to viral superinfection and exhibited a high constitutive level of the double-stranded RNA-activated protein kinase that might be involved in this resistance. We suggest that this cell line might be an interesting, and possibly more natural system than most previously used cell lines, for the continuing study of virus-host cell interactions during establishment of viral persistence using the much-studied model of reovirus infection.

The sigma 3 protein of reovirus is believed to play a role in the control of protein synthesis in reovirus-infected cells. In this paper we describe the establishment of a line of L-cells expressing the sigma 3 protein from the cloned S4 gene of reovirus serotype 3, under the control of the SV40 early promoter. The protein was enriched in the crude initiation factor fraction prepared by a high-salt wash of ribosomes. There was no apparent detrimental effect on the cell line.

We have studied the integrated proviruses in Moloney murine leukemia virus-induced rat thymomas. By Southern blot analysis, we found several complete integrated proviruses in each tumor. In most tumors, we could not detect defective or recombinant proviruses. Several of these integrated proviruses (with their flanking cellular sequences) from a single tumor were cloned in Charon 4A. Their flanking cellular fragments were subcloned into pBR322 and used as a probe to screen other thymoma DNAs. With one clone (pMo-lC) used as a probe, we could detect novel fragments in 11 out of 20 thymoma DNAs analyzed. In three of these thymomas we could analyze in more detail, it appears that these novel fragments are generated by the insertion of a provirus. This specific integration of Moloney provirus in the host genome may represent an important genetic event leading to tumor formation.

CD4-positive human lymphocytic cell lines are essential tools for the study of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) replication. Jurkat cells are among cells more frequently used for this purpose. In the current study, various cell clones or cells stocks derived from this cell line were shown to vary substantially in their response to viral infection and in their ability to support productive virus multiplication. The formation of syncytia, the effect of Vpu on viral export, and especially the specific infectivity of the viruses released, can vary significantly among independent cell stocks. This suggests that the choice of an adequate cell clone or cell line could be critical while evaluating specific properties of the virus and further stresses the limitations of tissue culture models. However, these observations also raise the possibility of exploiting these differences among cells to study specific aspects of host-cell interactions contributing to viral multiplication.

Mouse SC1 fibroblasts can support reovirus multiplication although they exhibit a partial resistance to viral-induced cytopathology; a significant percentage of infected SC1 cells can remain viable while becoming persistently infected by the virus. In the present study, the possible role of interferon on the fate of reovirus-infected cells was investigated. Treatment of mouse L fibroblasts with beta-interferon resulted in a reduced viral efficiency of plating while essentially no effect was observed on SC1 cells; the results were similar with the unrelated encephalomyocarditis virus. This suggests that the interferon-regulated pathways are somehow deficient in SC1 cells even though these cells do respond to interferon treatment, as evidenced by an increase in the level of active interferon-inducible protein kinase double-stranded RNA-dependent (PKR) enzyme. Persistently infected SC1 cells constitutively release interferon even though treatment with anti-interferon antiserum suggests that interferon presence is unrelated to maintenance of the persistent state. The possible significance of the correlation between the lack of interferon-induced antiviral effect and relative resistance of SC1 cells to viral-induced cytopathology is briefly discussed.