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The optimal approach to feeding preschool children balances expectation setting (demandingness) with responsivity to the child (responsiveness), and ideal feeding practices use environmental structuring and covert, non-directive control strategies while maintaining responsiveness. However, research has not examined the extent to which demandingness and responsiveness in feeding style is concordant with structure, responsiveness and control (directive and non-directive) in feeding practices. We classified the feeding style of 122 parents of preschoolers as authoritative (high demandingness/high responsiveness), authoritarian (high demandingness/low responsiveness), indulgent (low demandingness/high responsiveness), or uninvolved (low demandingness/low responsiveness). Parents reported on their frequency of use of 31 vegetable parenting practices (VPPs), that were classified into the domains of structure, control and responsiveness, and subcategorized as effective (likely to obtain the desired change without increasing child obesity risk) or ineffective (unlikely or increases risk) by expert consensus. We hypothesized that parents with an authoritative feeding style would have the highest effective structure, responsiveness and control VPPs, and the authoritarian style would differ with less responsiveness VPPs. We also hypothesized that the indulgent feeding style would have low levels of structure and control VPPs and high ineffective responsiveness VPPs. As expected, we found that parents with an authoritative feeding style reported using more effective structure and responsiveness VPPs. Surprisingly, parents with an authoritarian feeding style did not have VPPs which differed from those with an authoritative feeding style, and parents with an indulgent feeding style had surprisingly high effective control VPPs. Further research into the similarities and differences between parents' overall approach to feeding and their use of feeding practices related to specific foods is warranted, which may help inform the design of more effective interventions aimed at improving child dietary quality., (Copyright © 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Parents influence their child's vegetable intake through their feeding style, i.e. the emotional tone established around feeding, and vegetable parenting practices (VPPs), i.e. the specific behaviors employed to influence their child's vegetable intake. A model of precision food parenting proposes that child healthy dietary intake could be optimized by the selection and implementation of effective food parenting practices. Parents use and learn from these complex interactions with their child, which are reflective of feeding style. Intervention research has targeted VPPs in general without a delineation of which practices were selected, which were used, or why they were selected. It is not clear how these users were influenced by feeding style, nor what the parent learned from the interaction. The current study used mixed methods wherein middle socioeconomic status parents of 3-5 year old children were categorized within feeding style groups (n = 122), asked to select two VPPs, implemented them for a week (n = 63), and qualitatively interviewed about their experience. Responsiveness VPPs were most commonly selected, primarily due to their perceived ease of implementation. Parents believed there would be long term positive outcomes, e.g. more vegetable intake from using the practices selected. Frequency of use depended in part on opportunity, e.g. food purchase parenting practices could only be employed during intermittent shopping events. Few differences were detected by parent feeding styles in the types of VPPs selected, frequency of use, or effectiveness. Food parenting interventions can encourage selection of specific VPPs to employ and do not appear to have to tailor the types of VPPs offered to parent feeding style. Research is needed with larger, socioeconomically diverse samples to assess optimal categorization into feeding styles and confirm the present results., (Copyright © 2021. Published by Elsevier Ltd.)

Background: This study aimed to evaluate the psychometric properties of four self-efficacy scales (i.e., self-efficacy for fruit (FSE), vegetable (VSE), and water (WSE) intakes, and physical activity (PASE)) and to investigate their differences in item functioning across sex, age, and body weight status groups using item response modeling (IRM) and differential item functioning (DIF)., Methods: Four self-efficacy scales were administrated to 763 Hong Kong Chinese children (55.2% boys) aged 8-13 years. Classical test theory (CTT) was used to examine the reliability and factorial validity of scales. IRM was conducted and DIF analyses were performed to assess the characteristics of item parameter estimates on the basis of children's sex, age and body weight status., Results: All self-efficacy scales demonstrated adequate to excellent internal consistency reliability (Cronbach's α: 0.79-0.91). One FSE misfit item and one PASE misfit item were detected. Small DIF were found for all the scale items across children's age groups. Items with medium to large DIF were detected in different sex and body weight status groups, which will require modification. A Wright map revealed that items covered the range of the distribution of participants' self-efficacy for each scale except VSE., Conclusions: Several self-efficacy scales' items functioned differently by children's sex and body weight status. Additional research is required to modify the four self-efficacy scales to minimize these moderating influences for application.

Children can influence the foods available at home, but some ways of approaching a parent may be better than others; and the best way may vary by type of parent. This study explored how parents with different parenting styles would best receive their 10 to 14 years old child asking for fruits and vegetables (FV). An online parenting style questionnaire was completed and follow-up qualitative telephone interviews assessed home food rules, child influence on home food availability, parents' preferences for being asked for food, and common barriers and reactions to their child's FV requests. Parents ( n = 73) with a 10 to 14 years old child were grouped into authoritative, authoritarian, permissive, or uninvolved parenting style categories based on responses to questionnaires, and interviewed. Almost no differences in responses were detected by parenting style or ethnicity. Parents reported their children had a voice in what foods were purchased and available at home and were receptive to their child's asking for FV. The most important child asking characteristic was politeness, especially among authoritarian parents. Other important factors were asking in person, helping in the grocery store, writing requests on the grocery shopping list, and showing information they saw in the media. The barrier raising the most concern was FV cost, but FV quality and safety outside the home environment were also considerations., Competing Interests: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

Objective: Habit has been defined as the automatic performance of a usual behaviour. The present paper reports the relationships of variables from a Model of Goal Directed Behavior to four scales in regard to parents' habits when feeding their children: habit of (i) actively involving child in selection of vegetables; (ii) maintaining a positive vegetable environment; (iii) positive communications about vegetables; and (iv) controlling vegetable practices. We tested the hypothesis that the primary predictor of each habit variable would be the measure of the corresponding parenting practice., Design: Internet survey data from a mostly female sample. Primary analyses employed regression modelling with backward deletion, controlling for demographics and parenting practices behaviour., Setting: Houston, Texas, USA., Subjects: Parents of 307 pre-school (3-5-year-old) children., Results: Three of the four models accounted for about 50 % of the variance in the parenting practices habit scales. Each habit scale was primarily predicted by the corresponding parenting practices scale (suggesting validity). The habit of active child involvement in vegetable selection was also most strongly predicted by two barriers and rudimentary self-efficacy; the habit of maintaining a positive vegetable environment by one barrier; the habit of maintaining positive communications about vegetables by an emotional scale; and the habit of controlling vegetable practices by a perceived behavioural control scale., Conclusions: The predictiveness of the psychosocial variables beyond parenting practices behaviour was modest. Discontinuing the habit of ineffective controlling parenting practices may require increasing the parent's perceived control of parenting practices, perhaps through simulated parent-child interactions.

Objective: To evaluate the psychometric properties of a vegetable parenting practices scale using multidimensional polytomous item response modeling which enables assessing item fit to latent variables and the distributional characteristics of the items in comparison to the respondents. We also tested for differences in the ways item function (called differential item functioning) across child's gender, ethnicity, age, and household income groups., Method: Parents of 3-5 year old children completed a self-reported vegetable parenting practices scale online. Vegetable parenting practices consisted of 14 effective vegetable parenting practices and 12 ineffective vegetable parenting practices items, each with three subscales (responsiveness, structure, and control). Multidimensional polytomous item response modeling was conducted separately on effective vegetable parenting practices and ineffective vegetable parenting practices., Results: One effective vegetable parenting practice item did not fit the model well in the full sample or across demographic groups, and another was a misfit in differential item functioning analyses across child's gender. Significant differential item functioning was detected across children's age and ethnicity groups, and more among effective vegetable parenting practices than ineffective vegetable parenting practices items. Wright maps showed items only covered parts of the latent trait distribution. The harder- and easier-to-respond ends of the construct were not covered by items for effective vegetable parenting practices and ineffective vegetable parenting practices, respectively., Conclusions: Several effective vegetable parenting practices and ineffective vegetable parenting practices scale items functioned differently on the basis of child's demographic characteristics; therefore, researchers should use these vegetable parenting practices scales with caution. Item response modeling should be incorporated in analyses of parenting practice questionnaires to better assess differences across demographic characteristics., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Objective: To model effective vegetable parenting practices using the Model of Goal Directed Vegetable Parenting Practices construct scales., Design: An Internet survey was conducted with parents of pre-school children to assess their agreement with effective vegetable parenting practices and Model of Goal Directed Vegetable Parenting Practices items. Block regression modelling was conducted using the composite score of effective vegetable parenting practices scales as the outcome variable and the Model of Goal Directed Vegetable Parenting Practices constructs as predictors in separate and sequential blocks: demographics, intention, desire (intrinsic motivation), perceived barriers, autonomy, relatedness, self-efficacy, habit, anticipated emotions, perceived behavioural control, attitudes and lastly norms. Backward deletion was employed at the end for any variable not significant at P<0·05., Setting: Houston, TX, USA., Subjects: Three hundred and seven parents (mostly mothers) of pre-school children., Results: Significant predictors in the final model in order of relationship strength included habit of active child involvement in vegetable selection, habit of positive vegetable communications, respondent not liking vegetables, habit of keeping a positive vegetable environment and perceived behavioural control of having a positive influence on child's vegetable consumption. The final model's adjusted R 2 was 0·486., Conclusions: This was the first study to test scales from a behavioural model to predict effective vegetable parenting practices. Further research needs to assess these Model of Goal Directed Vegetable Parenting Practices scales for their (i) predictiveness of child consumption of vegetables in longitudinal samples and (ii) utility in guiding design of vegetable parenting practices interventions.

Objective: Increasing a parent's ability to influence a child's vegetable intake may require reducing the parent's use of ineffective vegetable parenting practices. The present study was designed to understand the psychosocial influences on ineffective vegetable parenting practices., Design: A cross-sectional web-based survey was conducted to model use of ineffective vegetable parenting practices using validated scales from a Model of Goal Directed Vegetable Parenting Practices., Setting: The dependent variable was a composite ineffective vegetable parenting practices index. The independent variables included validated subscales of intention, habit, perceived barriers, desire, competence, autonomy, relatedness, attitudes, norms, perceived behavioural control and anticipated emotions. Models were analysed using block regression with backward deletion., Subjects: Parents of 307 pre-school children (3-5 years old)., Results: Variables significantly positively related to ineffective vegetable parenting practices in order of relationship strength included habit of controlling vegetable practices (standardized β=0·349, P<0·0001) and desire (standardized β=0·117, P=0·025). Variables significantly negatively related to ineffective vegetable parenting practices in order of relationship strength included perceived behavioural control of negative parenting practices (standardized β=-0·215, P<0000), the habit of active child involvement in vegetable selection (standardized β=-0·142, P=0·008), anticipated negative parent emotional response to child vegetable refusal (standardized β=-0·133, P=0·009), autonomy (standardized β=-0·118, P=0.014), attitude about negative effects of vegetables (standardized β=-0·118, P=0·015) and descriptive norms (standardized β=-0·103, P=0·032). The model accounted for 40·5 % of the variance in use of ineffective vegetable parenting practices., Conclusions: The present study is the first report of psychometrically tested scales to predict use of ineffective vegetable parenting practices. Innovative intervention procedures will need to be designed and tested to reduce ineffective vegetable parenting practices.

Objective: To test the hypotheses that interventions clearly based on theory, multiple theories, or a formal intervention planning process will be more effective in changing fruit and vegetable consumption among children than interventions with no behavioral theoretical foundation., Design: Systematic review and meta-analysis., Setting: Identification of articles in PubMed, PsycInfo, Medline, Cochrane Collaborative database, and existing literature reviews and meta-analyses., Participants: Children aged 2-18 years., Interventions: Change in fruit and/or vegetable consumption in dietary change interventions., Methods: Meta-analysis, meta-regression analysis, and summary reporting for articles., Conclusions and Implications: Predicating an intervention on behavioral theory had a small to moderate enhancement (P < .001) of outcome effectiveness. Differences in mean Hedges' g effect sizes between theory and non-theory interventions were 0.232 for fruit, 0.043 for vegetables, and 0.333 for fruit and vegetables combined. There was mixed support, however, for enhanced dietary change with multiple theories or a formal planning process. After controlling for study quality, theory use was related only to vegetable consumption (β = 0.373; P < .001). More research is needed on theory's influences on dietary behaviors to guide future interventions among children. More research is also needed to identify what may be effective practical- or experience-based procedures that complement theory, to incorporate into interventions., (Copyright © 2014 Society for Nutrition Education and Behavior. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

The objective of this study was to determine the factor structure of 31 effective and ineffective vegetable parenting practices used by parents of preschool children based on three theoretically proposed factors: responsiveness, control and structure. The methods employed included both corrected item-total correlations and confirmatory factor analysis. Acceptable fit was obtained only when effective and ineffective parenting practices were analyzed separately. Among effective items the model included one second order factor (effectiveness) and the three proposed first order factors. The same structure was revealed among ineffective items, but required correlated paths be specified among items. A theoretically specified three factor structure was obtained among 31 vegetable parenting practice items, but likely to be effective and ineffective items had to be analyzed separately. Research is needed on how these parenting practices factors predict child vegetable intake., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: Vegetable intake has been related to lower risk of chronic illnesses in the adult years. The habit of vegetable intake should be established early in life, but many parents of preschoolers report not being able to get their child to eat vegetables. The Model of Goal Directed Behavior (MGDB) has been employed to understand vegetable parenting practices (VPP) to encourage a preschool child's vegetable intake. The Model of Goal Directed Vegetable Parenting Practices (MGDVPP) provides possible determinants and may help explain why parents use effective or ineffective VPP. Scales to measure effective and ineffective vegetable parenting practices have previously been validated. This manuscript presents the psychometric characteristics and factor structures of new scales to measure the constructs in MGDVPP., Methods: Participants were 307 parents of preschool (i.e. 3 to 5 year old) children, used for both exploratory (EFA) and confirmatory factor analyses (CFA). Data were collected via an internet survey. First, EFA were conducted using the scree plot criterion for factor extraction. Next, CFA assessed the fit of the exploratory derived factors. Then, classical test theory procedures were employed with all scales. Finally, Pearson correlations were calculated between each scale and composite effective and ineffective VPP as a test of scale predictive validity., Results: Twenty-nine subscales (164 items) within 11 scales were extracted. The number of items per subscale ranged from 2 to 13, with three subscales having 10 or more items and 12 subscales having 4 items or less. Cronbach's alphas varied from 0.13 to 0.92, with 17 being 0.70 or higher. Most alphas <0.70 had only three or four items. Twenty-five of the 29 subscales significantly bivariately correlated with the composite effective or ineffective VPP scales., Discussion: This was the initial examination of the factor structure and psychometric assessment of MGDVPP scales. Most of the scales displayed acceptable to desirable psychometric characteristics. Research is warranted to add items to those subscales with small numbers of items, test their validity and reliability, and characterize the model's influence on child vegetable consumption.

The aim of this study was to explore factors underlying parents' motivations to use vegetable parenting practices (VPP) using the Model of Goal Directed Vegetable Parenting Practices (MGDVPP) (an adaptation of the Model of Goal Directed Behavior) as the theoretical basis for qualitative interviews. In-depth interviews with parents of 3-5-year-old children were conducted over the telephone by trained interviewers following a script. MGDVPP constructs provided the theoretical framework guiding script development. Audio-recordings were transcribed and analyzed, with themes coded independently by two interviewers. Fifteen participants completed the study. Interviews elicited information about possible predictors of motivations as they related to VPP, and themes emerged related to each of the MGDVPP constructs (attitudes, positive anticipated emotions, negative anticipated emotions, subjective norms, and perceived behavioral control). Parents believed child vegetable consumption was important and associated with child health and vitality. Parents described motivations to engage in specific VPP in terms of emotional responses, influential relationships, food preferences, resources, and food preparation skills. Parents discussed specific strategies to encourage child vegetable intake. Interview data suggested parents used diverse VPP to encourage child intake and that varied factors predicted their use. Understanding these factors could inform the design of interventions to increase parents' use of parenting practices that promote long-term child consumption of vegetables., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Sensitivity to the taste of 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) (a bitter chemical related to the phenylthiocarbamide found in cruciferous vegetables) has been related to dietary intake or preferences of cruciferous vegetables among adults and young children but not middle-aged children or adolescents. We hypothesized that PROP taste sensitivity is related to lower reported dietary intake of cruciferous vegetables, primarily among younger children (ie, a moderating effect of child age). This study examined the relationship of PROP sensitivity to reported dietary intake across 3 days in 2 age groups of youth (9-10 and 17-18 years) while statistically controlling for physical activity, social desirability, and reporting bias. Cross-sectional design was used with a multiethnic (white, African American, Hispanic, etc) sample of 843 men and women. Children were recruited from and data were collected in local elementary and high schools that had at least 30% ethnic minority enrollment. Children providing nonplausible reports of dietary intake were deleted from the analyses. Body mass index was calculated and expressed in z scores. Energy intake and physical activity were measured by 3 telephone-conducted 24-hour dietary recalls with the Nutrient Data System for Research and 5 days of Actigraph (ActiGraph, Shalimar, Florida) activity monitor. The primary analyses included 347 students. 6-n-Propylthiouracil sensitivity was not related to intake of cruciferous vegetables. Intakes of the cruciferous vegetables were low, which may explain the lack of relationship., (Copyright © 2011 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Fruit and vegetable intake may reduce the risk of some chronic diseases. However, many children consume less-than-recommended amounts of fruit and vegetables. Because health professionals and dietetics practitioners often work with parents to increase children's fruit and vegetable intake, assessing their opinions about the effectiveness of parenting practices is an important step in understanding how to promote fruit and vegetable intake among preschool-aged children. Using a cross-sectional design, collaborators from six countries distributed an Internet survey to health and nutrition organization members. A self-selected sample reported their perceptions of the effectiveness of 39 parenting practices intended to promote fruit and vegetable consumption in preschool-aged children from May 18, 2008, to September 16, 2008. A total of 889 participants (55% United States, 22.6% Mexico, 10.9% Australia, 4.4% Spain, 3.3% Chile, 2.2% United Kingdom, and 1.6% other countries) completed the survey. The fruit and vegetable intake-related parenting practices items were categorized into three dimensions (structure, responsiveness, and control) based on a parenting theory conceptual framework and dichotomized as effective/ineffective based on professional perceptions. The theoretically derived factor structures for effective and ineffective parenting practices were evaluated using separate confirmatory factor analyses and demonstrated acceptable fit. Fruit and vegetable intake-related parenting practices that provide external control were perceived as ineffective or counterproductive, whereas fruit and vegetable intake-related parenting practices that provided structure, nondirective control, and were responsive were perceived as effective in getting preschool-aged children to consume fruit and vegetables. Future research needs to develop and validate a parent-reported measure of these fruit and vegetable intake-related parenting practices and to empirically evaluate the effect of parental use of the parenting practices on child fruit and vegetable consumption., (Copyright 2010 American Dietetic Association. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Objective: Parents may influence children's fruit and vegetable (F&V) consumption in many ways, but research has focused primarily on counterproductive parenting practices, such as restriction and pressure to eat. The present study aimed to assess the association of diverse parenting practices to promote F&V and its consumption among pre-school children., Design: An exploratory analysis was performed on cross-sectional data from 755 Head Start pre-school children and their parents collected in 2004-5. Data included parent practices to facilitate child F&V consumption (grouped into five categories); parent-reported dietary intake of their child over 3 d; and a number of potential correlates. K-means cluster analysis assigned parents to groups with similar use of the food parenting practice categories. Stepwise linear regression analyses investigated the association of parent clusters with children's consumption of F&V, after controlling for potential confounding factors., Results: A three-cluster solution provided the best fit (R2 = 0.62), with substantial differences in the use of parenting practices. The clusters were labelled Indiscriminate Food Parenting, Non-directive Food Parenting and Low-involved Food Parenting. Non-directive parents extensively used enhanced availability and teachable moments' practices, but less firm discipline practices than the other clusters, and were significantly associated with child F&V intake (standardized beta = 0.09, P < 0.1; final model R2 = 0.17) after controlling for confounders, including parental feeding styles., Conclusions: Parents use a variety of parenting practices, beyond pressuring to eat and restrictive practices, to promote F&V intake in their young child. Evaluating the use of combinations of practices may provide a better understanding of parental influences on children's F&V intake.

Objective: This exploratory study assessed how 8-13-year-old children categorised and labelled fruit and vegetables (FaV), and how these were influenced by child characteristics, to specify second-level categories in a hierarchical food search system for a computerised 24 h dietary recall (hdr)., Design: Two sets of food cards, sixty-seven for fruit (F) and sixty-four for vegetables (V), with pictures and names of FaV from ten professionally defined food categories were sorted, separately, by each child into piles of similar foods. Demographic data, BMI and 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP) taster status were obtained., Setting: Participants attended the Children's Nutrition Research Center in the summer of 2006., Subjects: In all, 152 8-13-year-old children, predominantly English-speaking, of whom sixteen were predominantly Spanish-speaking., Results: Children created an average of 8.5 (5.3) piles with 7.9 (11.4) cards per pile for the F, and an average of 10.1 (4.8) piles with 6.2 (7.9) cards per pile for the V. No substantial differences in Robinson clustering were detected across subcategories for each of the demographic characteristics, BMI or PROP sensitivity. Children provided clusters names that were mostly 'Taxonomic - Professional' labels, such as salads, berries, peppers, for both F (51.8 %) and V (52.1 %)., Conclusions: These categories should be tested to assess their ability to facilitate search of FaV items in a computerised 24 hdr for children in this age group.

Children tend to eat more fruit and vegetables when more are available in the home. We proposed and tested a model that predicts the availability at home (hereinafter termed "home availability") of fruit, 100% juice, and vegetables, using new measures of frequency of food shopping, purchase, and comparative purchase outcome expectancies (ie, the perceived benefits and costs of purchasing fruit and vegetables), home food pantry management practices, family social support for purchasing fruit and vegetables, food shopping practices, and body mass index (BMI). Participants (N=98) were recruited in 2004 in front of grocery stores and completed two telephone interviews. Cross-sectional hierarchical regression was employed with backward deletion of nonsignificant variables. Despite many statistically significant bivariate correlations between the new variables and home fruit, 100% juice, and vegetable availability, social support was the primary predictor of home fruit availability in multivariate regression. BMI and home 100% juice pantry management were the primary predictors of home 100% juice availability. Social support, BMI, and shopping practices were the primary predictors of home vegetable availability. Social support for purchasing fruit, 100% juice, and vegetables was an important, consistent predictor of home availability. These findings need to be replicated in larger samples.

Home fruit, 100% juice, and vegetables (FJV) availability is related to increased FJV consumption by children. While FJV must be purchased for use in the home, no scales have been reported on home FJV pantry management practices. A scale for home FJV pantry management practices was generated from focus group discussions with diverse 162 food shoppers. A commonly used scale of home FJV availability was also assessed. A grocery store intercept survey recruited 171 food shoppers with children in front of supermarkets and grocery stores. Survey instruments were administered twice, separated by 6 weeks. Single dimensionality was observed for each scale. Item Response Theory parameter estimates revealed easily interpreted patterns in the sequence of items by difficulty of response. These scales are available to help better understand influences on family FJV purchase decisions.

Objective: Psychosocial and demographic correlates of fruit, juice and vegetable (FJV) consumption were investigated to guide how to increase FJV intake., Design: Hierarchical multiple regression analysis of FJV consumption on demographics and psychosocial variables., Setting: Houston, Texas, USA., Subjects: Boys aged 11-14 years (n = 473)., Results: FJV preference and availability were both significant predictors of FJV consumption, controlling for demographics and clustering of Boy Scout troops. Vegetable self-efficacy was associated with vegetable consumption. The interaction of preference by home availability was a significant predictor of FJV. The interaction of self-efficacy by home availability showed a trend towards significantly predicting vegetable consumption. No significant interactions were found between body mass index and the psychosocial variables., Conclusions: Findings suggest that future interventions emphasising an increase in preference, availability and efficacy may increase consumption of FJV in similar populations.

Objectives: To examine the association between fruit and vegetable (F&V) availability and consumption, the possible influences on this association, research gaps, and implications for developing strategies to increase F&V consumption., Design: Systematic review of studies that have examined associations between F&V availability and consumption., Results: Qualitative studies conducted among children and adults indicated that greater availability was associated with greater consumption. This finding was supported by cross-sectional studies among children. Availability was associated with dietary psychosocial variables such as preferences, and it appears that availability may moderate the relationship between these psychosocial variables and consumption. Intervention studies attempting to increase availability have resulted in increased consumption, and availability has predicted change in consumption over an 18-month period., Discussion: Availability appears to be a key proximal determinant of consumption, especially of F&V, and thereby provides a target for change. However, the mechanisms that relate these variables are unclear and there is a need to clarify the direction of causality. We suggest that the possible causal mechanisms may include: (1) availability simply facilitates increased consumption; (2) the visual cues of available food may stimulate consumption; and (3) available food exposure may increase preference, which leads to increased consumption. Each of these possibilities requires close examination, as do policy-level interventions., Conclusion: F&V availability is associated with increased consumption. Research that elucidates the mechanisms between availability and intake, and tests policy-level interventions, is needed to advance increased availability as a public health procedure.

Objective: To validate four scales -- outcome expectancies for purchasing fruit and for purchasing vegetables, and comparative outcome expectancies for purchasing fresh fruit and for purchasing fresh vegetables versus other forms of fruit and vegetables (F&V)., Design: Survey instruments were administered twice, separated by 6 weeks., Setting: Recruited in front of supermarkets and grocery stores; interviews conducted by telephone., Subjects: One hundred and sixty-one food shoppers with children (18 years or younger)., Results: Single dimension scales were specified for fruit and for vegetable purchasing outcome expectancies, and for comparative (fresh vs. other) fruit and vegetable purchasing outcome expectancies. Item Response Theory parameter estimates revealed easily interpreted patterns in the sequence of items by difficulty of response. Fruit and vegetable purchasing and fresh fruit comparative purchasing outcome expectancy scales were significantly correlated with home F&V availability, after controlling for social desirability of response. Comparative fresh vegetable outcome expectancy scale was significantly bivariately correlated with home vegetable availability, but not after controlling for social desirability., Conclusion: These scales are available to help better understand family F&V purchasing decisions.

Objective: To determine the reliability and validity of a questionnaire measuring fruit and vegetable (FV) self-efficacy and social norms during school lunch among 5th graders., Design: In this cross-sectional study, students completed lunch food records and a psychosocial questionnaire measuring school lunch FV self-efficacy and social norms regarding consumption during the fall and spring semesters. Test-retest reliability was assessed between fall and spring semesters. The measurement model was cross-validated in the spring data., Setting: One middle school in Houston, Texas., Participants: 275 fifth graders in the 1998 fall semester and 262 of these fifth graders in the 1999 spring semester., Main Outcome Measures: FV consumption and psychosocial variables., Analyses: Principal components analyses, confirmatory factor analyses and bivariate correlations., Results: Three scales were identified: Fruit Self-Efficacy, Vegetable Self-Efficacy, and FV Social Norms. FV self-efficacy were positively correlated with low-fat vegetable and fruit consumption. Social norms were positively correlated with total vegetable, low-fat vegetable, fruit and total FV consumption., Conclusions and Implications: Self-efficacy and norms for eating FV at school lunch are related to lunch FV consumption. Increasing self-efficacy and social norms about consuming FV at school appears to be important targets to improve FV consumption.

Perceived self-efficacy (SE) for eating fruit and vegetables (FV) is a key variable mediating FV change in interventions. This study applies item response modeling (IRM) to a fruit, juice and vegetable self-efficacy questionnaire (FVSEQ) previously validated with classical test theory (CTT) procedures. The 24-item (five-point Likert scale) FVSEQ was administered to 1578 fourth graders from 26 Houston schools. The IRM partial credit model indicated the five-point response options were not fully utilized. The questionnaire exhibited acceptable (>0.70) reliability except at the extremes of the SE scale. Differential item functioning (DIF) analyses revealed no response bias due to gender. However, DIF was detected by ethnic groups in 10 items. IRM of this scale expanded what was known from CTT methods in three ways: (i) areas of the scale were identified that were not as reliable, (ii) limitations were found in the response format and (c) areas of the SE scale levels were not measured. The FVSEQ can be improved by including items at the extreme levels of difficulty. DIF analyses identified areas where IRM can be useful to improve the functioning of measures.

Objective: To assess the psychometric characteristics of new scales of shopping practices and social support for purchasing fruits and vegetables., Design: Participants were recruited in front of diverse grocery stores. Telephone data collection was done on 2 occasions, separated by 6 weeks., Participants: 166 food shoppers with children at home participated., Main Outcome Measures: New scales of food shopping practices and social support for purchasing fruits and vegetables were psychometrically analyzed and related to a measure of home fruit or vegetable availability as a test of construct validity., Analysis: Both classical test and item response theory procedures were used. Correlations related the new measures to home fruit and vegetable availability., Results: Single dimension scales were specified for fruit and vegetable shopping practices (35% of the variance), fruit purchase social support (53% of the variance), and vegetable purchase social support (52% of the variance). Item response theory difficulty estimates varied from -0.64 to 0.73 for fruit and vegetable shopping practices, from -0.55 to 0.33 for fruit purchase social support, and from -0.55 to 0.34 for vegetable social support. Each scale significantly correlated with home fruit and vegetable availability (construct validity), even after controlling for social desirability of response (0.19 for shopping practices, 0.37 for fruit purchasing social support, and 0.28 for vegetable purchasing social support). Person separation reliability was 0.80 for food shopping practices, 0.74 for fruit purchasing social support, and 0.73 for vegetable purchasing social support., Conclusion: The scales performed well., Implications for Research and Practice: These scales are now available to help better understand fruit and vegetable shopping practices, fruit purchase social support, and vegetable purchase social support.

Objective: This paper identifies the anthropometric, parental, and psychosocial characteristics and meal practices (e.g., breakfast skipping and number of meals and snacks consumed) associated with consumption of total energy, percent energy from fat, fruit, 100% fruit juice, vegetables, sweetened beverages, and water among 8- to 10-year-old African-American girls., Research Methods and Procedures: This study included 114 8- to 10-year-old African-American girls and a parent or primary caregiver. Girls and a parent or primary caregiver completed several dietary questionnaires. Two 24-hour dietary recalls were conducted with each girl. Height and weight were measured. Separate hierarchical regression analyses were conducted for each dependent dietary variable; potential field center differences were examined., Results: The number of meals and snacks consumed was correlated with energy intake. Lower BMI was related to higher vegetable consumption, and the number of snacks consumed was positively related to sweetened beverage consumption. Greater low-fat food preparation practices reported by parents were related to lower consumption of fat as a percentage of total energy., Discussion: Dietary behavior differed across geographic areas. Low-fat food preparation practices in the home seemed to be an important influence on the percentage of energy consumed from fat. Greater vegetable consumption was associated with lower BMI. Interventions to prevent excessive weight gain in African-American girls should encourage low-fat food preparation in the home and greater consumption of vegetables.

The impact of goal attainment in a dietary change program to increase fruit, 100% juice, and vegetable consumption was assessed among fourth-grade students. At each session, the students were given goals related to increasing fruit, juice, and vegetable consumption. Baseline consumption and postconsumption were assessed with up to 4 days of computerized dietary recalls. Analyses included regression models predicting postconsumption from the numbers of fruit-juice goals, vegetable goals, or total number of general goals attained, respectively. For students with low baseline fruit-juice preferences, attaining more fruit-juice goals resulted in increased post-fruit-juice consumption. Among those with low baseline vegetable consumption, attaining one vegetable goal was related to higher post-vegetable consumption. For boys and those with high baseline fruit, juice, and vegetable consumption, attaining three general goals was related to increased fruit, juice, and vegetable intake. The results show that goal attainment was somewhat effective in promoting dietary change among children.

Objective: To assess the validity of a self-reported fruit, juice, and vegetable home availability measure., Design: Cross-sectional., Setting: In-home interviews., Participants: Forty-eight parents of fourth to sixth grade children., Main Outcome Measures: Scales assessing self-reported home availability of fruit, 100% fruit juice, and vegetables over the past 7 days compared with an observed home inventory conducted on the interview day., Analyses: Cohen's kappa of agreement, specificity and sensitivity, and correlations, with significance level <.05., Results: There was substantial agreement between self-reported and observed home inventories of many fruit, 100% fruit juice, and vegetables among participating families in this study., Conclusions and Implications: Self-reported shelf inventories can be an effective tool for use in assessing the availability of fruit, juice, and vegetables in the home.

Background: Fruit, juice, and vegetable (FJV) consumption among children is low. Innovative programs are needed to enable children to increase FJV intake. Psychoeducational multimedia permits the delivery of interventions as designed and capitalizes on known behavior change principles., Design: Elementary school was the unit of recruitment, assignment, and analysis. Twenty-six elementary schools were pair matched on size and percentage of free or reduced-price lunch, and randomly assigned to treatment or control groups. Data were collected just before and just after the program., Setting/participants: All fourth-grade students in participating elementary schools were invited to participate. Data were collected on 1578 students. MAIN OUTCOME Servings of fruit, 100% juice, and vegetables consumed., Intervention: Squire's Quest! is a ten-session, psychoeducational, multimedia game delivered over 5 weeks, with each session lasting about 25 minutes. Based on social cognitive theory, educational activities attempted to increase preferences for FJV through multiple exposures and associating fun with their consumption, increase asking behaviors for FJV at home and while eating out, and increase skills in FJV preparation through making virtual recipes., Measures: Four days of dietary intake were assessed before and after the intervention. Assessment was made by the Food Intake Recording Software System (FIRSSt), which conducts a multiple pass, 24-hour dietary intake interview directly with the children., Results: Children participating in Squire's Quest! increased their FJV consumption by 1.0 servings more than the children not receiving the program., Conclusions: Psychoeducational multimedia games have the potential to substantially change dietary behavior. More research is warranted.

Background: This study aimed to evaluate the psychometric properties of four self-efficacy scales (i.e., self-efficacy for fruit (FSE), vegetable (VSE), and water (WSE) intakes, and physical activity (PASE)) and to investigate their differences in item functioning across sex, age, and body weight status groups using item response modeling (IRM) and differential item functioning (DIF). Methods: Four self-efficacy scales were administrated to 763 Hong Kong Chinese children (55.2% boys) aged 8-13 years. Classical test theory (CTT) was used to examine the reliability and factorial validity of scales. IRM was conducted and DIF analyses were performed to assess the characteristics of item parameter estimates on the basis of children's sex, age and body weight status. Results: All self-efficacy scales demonstrated adequate to excellent internal consistency reliability (Cronbach's α: 0.79-0.91). One FSE misfit item and one PASE misfit item were detected. Small DIF were found for all the scale items across children's age groups. Items with medium to large DIF were detected in different sex and body weight status groups, which will require modification. A Wright map revealed that items covered the range of the distribution of participants' self-efficacy for each scale except VSE. Conclusions: Several self-efficacy scales' items functioned differently by children's sex and body weight status. Additional research is required to modify the four self-efficacy scales to minimize these moderating influences for application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Home environment has an important influence on children's fruit and vegetable (FV) consumption, but children may in turn also impact their home FV environment, e.g. by asking for FV. The Squire's Quest II serious game intervention aimed to increase asking behaviors to improve home FV availability and children's FV intake. This study's aims were to assess: 1) did asking behaviors at baseline predict home FV availability at baseline (T0) (RQ1); 2) were asking behaviors and home FV availability influenced by the intervention (RQ2); 3) did increases in asking behaviors predict increased home FV availability (RQ3); and 4) did increases in asking behaviors and increases in home FV availability mediate increases in FV intake among children (RQ4)? Methods: This is a secondary analysis of a study using a randomized controlled trial, with 4 groups (each n = 100 child--parent dyads). All groups were analyzed together for this paper since groups did not vary on components relevant to our analysis. All children and parents (n = 400 dyads) received a self-regulation serious game intervention and parent material. The intervention ran for three months. Measurements were taken at baseline, immediately after intervention and at 3-month follow-up. Asking behavior and home FV availability were measured using questionnaires; child FV intake was measured using 24-h dietary recalls. ANCOVA methods (research question 1), linear mixed-effect models (research question 2), and Structural Equation Modeling (research questions 3 and 4) were used. Results: Baseline child asking behaviors predicted baseline home FV availability. The intervention increased child asking behaviors and home FV availability. Increases in child asking behaviors, however, did not predict increased home FV availability. Increased child asking behaviors and home FV availability also did not mediate the increases in child FV intake. Conclusions: Children influence their home FV environment through their asking behaviors, which can be enhanced via a serious game intervention. The obtained increases in asking behavior were, however, insufficient to affect home FV availability or intake. Other factors, such as child preferences, sample characteristics, intervention duration and parental direct involvement may play a role and warrant examination in future research. Trials Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01004094. Date registered 10/28/2009 [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Child fruit and vegetable intake is below recommended levels, increasing risk for chronic disease. Interventions to influence fruit and vegetable intake among youth have had mixed effects. Innovative, theory-driven interventions are needed. Goal setting, enhanced by implementation intentions (i.e., plans tightly connected to a behavioral goal), may offer a solution. Action plans state “how” a goal will be achieved, while coping plans identify a potential barrier and corresponding solution. The research reported here evaluated the short- and long-term effects of goal setting enhanced with implementation intentions on child fruit and vegetable intake in a 10-episode, theoretically-grounded serious videogame promoting fruit and vegetables. This is one of the first studies to test the efficacy of implementation intentions on the dietary intake of healthy children. Methods: A four-group randomized design with three data collection periods (baseline, immediate post-intervention, 3 months post-intervention) was employed. Groups varied on whether children created an implementation intention (none, action, coping, both) as part of goal setting. Participants were 4th and 5th grade children (~9-11 years old) and one parent. An a priori power analysis indicated this would provide >80% power to detect a small effect (Cohen's d = 0.17). Children played a 10-episode online videogame; parents received 10 electronic newsletters and access to a parent-only website. The primary outcome was child fruit and vegetable intake, assessed via three, dietitian-assisted telephone recalls at each data collection period. The primary analysis was conducted using a repeated measures analysis of covariance with a mixed model procedure. Secondary analyses examined intervention effects on fruit and vegetables separately. Results: Four hundred parent/child dyads were recruited. A significant group-by-time interaction for fruit and vegetable intake (p < 0.001) was found in only the Action group, which had significant increases in fruit and vegetable intake at post 1 (p < 0.0001) and post 2 (p < 0.0001). No other significant interactions were observed; however, there were significant time effects for fruit (p < 0.0001). Conclusions: Action intentions may be an important component of successful interventions to increase and maintain fruit and vegetable intake in pre-adolescent children. Videogames promoting healthy diets offer an effective vehicle for delivering behavior change interventions to children. Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov NCT01004094. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Fruit and vegetable (FV) intake may protect against several chronic diseases, and the preferences and habits in relation to FV intake appear to form in early childhood. Child FV intake reflects many influences from multiple levels (e.g. internal to the child, family, school, and neighborhood). We have documented influences at each of these levels, but more definitive research in longitudinal samples remains to be conducted. Even though validated comprehensive models of influences on child FV intake in longitudinal studies are not available to guide intervention design for children of different ages, there has been an urgency to initiate chronic disease prevention interventions to mitigate the substantial health consequences. Effective interventions use known behavior change procedures to change the influences on FV intake enough to change the behavior, but few such interventions have demonstrated effectiveness at meaningful levels. Innovative methods need to be explored. Videogames for Health offer a medium that is attractive to children and shows promising results, especially for dietary behavior change. Exciting additional research is needed to clarify possible bidirectional influences between the environmental and individual influences on child intake with possible age-related differences in influence and in the optimal design of video games for dietary change. Copyright © 2013 S. Karger AG, Basel [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Objectives: The effects of a Boy Scout Five-A-Day Badge program on fruit juice (FJ) and low-fat vegetable (LV) consumption were evaluated using a two-condition (treatment, active-attention-placebo-control) group randomized trial, with three data collection periods (baseline, immediate post, 6-month post). Methods: Forty-two Boy Scout troops (n =473, 10- to 14-year-old Scouts) in Houston, TX, were randomly assigned to condition. The 9-week program included approximately 30 min of weekly troop time, plus ∼25 min of weekly Internet programming. The intervention was delivered in two waves (Spring and Fall). Data were collected in 2003–2004, and analyses were completed in 2008. Main outcomes were FJ and LV consumption (validated food frequency questionnaire). FV self-efficacy, preferences, and home availability were also measured. Results: Significant increases in FJ consumption (p =.003), FJ home availability (p =.009), and LV self-efficacy (p =.004) were observed among the intervention group immediately following the intervention but were not maintained 6 months later. Conclusion: A Boy Scout troop-plus-Internet intervention promoting FJ and LV consumption resulted in short-term changes in FJ consumption among U.S. Boy Scouts. Future research should investigate ways to extend these results to LV and maintain the increases over time. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Objective: This pilot study tested whether an Internet-based intervention could achieve change in fruit, juice, and vegetable consumption, physical activity, and self-efficacy in youth at-risk of obesity. Method: Participants were 80 8-to-10-year-old African American girls at-risk of obesity, with a home computer, Internet access, and an e-mail address. A two-group design was followed. Groups differed only on incentive schedule (immediate, delayed). The 8-week home-based program, conducted entirely over the Internet, promoted fruit, juice, vegetables, and water intake and physical activity. Pre-post measures were collected through self-report via the program website. The study was conducted in the greater Houston, TX, area September through November, 2004. Results: Statistically significant pre-to-post differences were observed in fruit, juice, and vegetable consumption (p =.002), physical activity—yesterday (p <.001), physical activity—usually (p =.001), and fruit, juice, and vegetable self-efficacy (p =.003). Conclusion: Internet-based obesity prevention programs may be an effective channel for promoting healthy diet and physical activity behaviors to youth at-risk of obesity. Additional research is needed to more fully examine their effectiveness at promoting and maintaining diet and physical activity change. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Objective: To characterize food group purchases from grocery receipts. Methods: Food shoppers (aged ≥19 years with at least one child aged ≤18 years in the home, the family’s primary food purchaser) were recruited in front of grocery stores to participate in two interviews, separated by 6 weeks, and to save and mail grocery store receipts from the interim to researchers. Receipt items were coded by food categories; the percentage of total grocery dollars spent in each of the food categories each week was computed. Analyses of variance were performed on the total grocery dollar spent and the percentage spent in each food category by participant characteristics. Results: The greatest percentage of purchases were for protein foods (24%), followed by drinks (12%), grains (9.2%), vegetables (8.8%), dairy (8.3%), mixed dishes (7.5%), and fruit (7%). Hispanics purchased a greater percentage of fruit and vegetables than African Americans. Whites purchased more alcohol products than African Americans. Whites purchased more mixed dishes than Hispanics, and African Americans purchased more protein foods than whites (all P<0.001). Conclusions: The use of this measurement procedure, unaffected by errors of self-report, should be more thoroughly explored to explain differences in disease prevalence. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background: The physical environments in which adolescents reside and their access to food stores may influence their consumption of fruit and vegetables. This association could either be direct or mediated via psychosocial variables or home availability of fruit and vegetables. A greater understanding of these associations would aide the design of new interventions. The purpose of this study was to examine associations between distance to food stores and restaurants and fruit and vegetable consumption and the possible mediating role of psychosocial variables and home availability. Methods: Fruit and vegetable consumption of 204 Boy Scouts was assessed by a food frequency questionnaire in 2003. Participant addresses were geo-coded and distance to different types of food stores and restaurants calculated. Fruit and vegetable preferences, home availability and self-efficacy were measured. Regression models were run with backward deletion of non-significant environmental and psychosocial variables. Mediation tests were performed. Results: Residing further away from a small food store (SFS) (convenience store and drug store) was associated with increased fruit and juice and low fat vegetable consumption. Residing closer to a fast food restaurant was associated with increased high fat vegetable and fruit and juice consumption. Vegetable preferences partially mediated (26%) the relationship between low fat vegetable consumption and distance to the nearest SFS. Conclusion: Distance to SFS and fast food restaurants were associated with fruit and vegetable consumption among male adolescents. Vegetable preferences partially mediated the distance to low fat vegetable relationship. More research is needed to elucidate how environmental variables impact children's dietary intake. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The association between baseline stage of change and intervention outcomes is examined in a sample of African-American adults who participated in the Eat for Life Trial, a study to increase fruit and vegetable (F & V) intake conducted through Black churches. We explore whether precontemplators responded differently over time than those in the preparation stage, a group assumed to be more likely to change their behavior. Stage of change, F & V intake (by food-frequency questionnaires) and psychosocial variables were assessed at baseline and 1-year follow-up. Individuals initially classified as precontemplators reported an increase in F & V intake as large as those in the preparation stage and precontemplators' post-test intake was equivalent to those in preparation. Precontemplators' change in psychosocial outcomes was also as large or larger than those in the preparation stage. At least with regard to F & V, these findings raise questions regarding the validity of stage of change, one element of the Transtheoretical Model, as a predictor of future behavior and intervention response. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article reports on the influence of availability, accessibility, and preferences for home juice (F), fruit juice (J) and vegetables (V) on children's dietary behavior. Records of the foods eaten each day were collected from 225 children from nine parochial schools in Houston, Texas in 1998. Results showed that parent-reported and child-reported accessibility and availability are significant predictors of child FJV consumption. Further studies that measure the impact of child gender on FJV preferences and assesses week-to-week variability in these measures are recommended.

Background. Boy Scouts are an important channel to complement school-based programs to enable boys to eat more fruit, 100% juice, and vegetables (FJV) for chronic disease prevention. The “5 a Day Achievement Badge” program was presented on a pilot study basis to African-American Boy Scout troops in Houston.Methods. Troops were the unit of recruitment and random assignment to treatment and control groups. The badge program was presented in Fall 1997 by trained dietitians and included activities to increase availability and accessibility of fruit and vegetables at scouts'' homes, increase preferences for vegetables, and train in the preparation of FaSST (fast, simple, safe, and tasty) recipes. Weekly comic books demonstrated and reinforced what scouts were expected to do at home. A weekly newsletter with recipes was sent to parents. The program was revised and presented to the control group in Winter 1998. Two 24-h recalls were the primary assessment tools. Telephone interviews were conducted with parents.Results. The intervention resulted in a 0.8 FJV serving difference (post values of treatment versus control groups with pre value covaried).Conclusions. The changes obtained suggest that the intervention was effective in promoting dietary change. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Investigates the influence of the family and child-care providers on preschool children's fruit, juice and vegetable consumption. Children's food preferences and practices and food-related behaviors; Benefits from early dietary intervention programs; Factors influencing fruit, juice and vegetable consumption.

Objective To evaluate the effect of playing a health video game embedded with story immersion, Escape from Diab (Diab), on children's diet and physical activity (PA) and to explore whether children immersed in Diab had greater positive outcomes. Design Two groups, nonrandomized; 3 outcome assessments: at baseline, immediately after the game (post 1), and 8-10 weeks after the game (post 2). Participants A total of 179 Chinese children aged 8-12 years. Intervention The treatment group played Diab; the control group received no intervention. Main Outcome Measures Motivation; self-efficacy; preference for fruit, vegetables, water, and PA; as well as PA behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Vegetable consumption protects against chronic diseases, but many young children do not eat vegetables. One quest within the mobile application Mommio was developed to train mothers of preschoolers in effective vegetable parenting practices, or ways to approach getting their child to eat and enjoy vegetables. A much earlier version of the game, then called Kiddio, was alpha tested previously, but the game has since evolved in key ways. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Objective: To test the hypotheses that interventions clearly based on theory, multiple theories, or a formal intervention planning process will be more effective in changing fruit and vegetable consumption among children than interventions with no behavioral theoretical foundation. Design: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Setting: Identification of articles in PubMed, PsycInfo, Medline, Cochrane Collaborative database, and existing literature reviews and meta-analyses. Participants: Children aged 2–18 years. Interventions: Change in fruit and/or vegetable consumption in dietary change interventions. Methods: Meta-analysis, meta-regression analysis, and summary reporting for articles. Conclusions and Implications: Predicating an intervention on behavioral theory had a small to moderate enhancement (P < .001) of outcome effectiveness. Differences in mean Hedges' g effect sizes between theory and non-theory interventions were 0.232 for fruit, 0.043 for vegetables, and 0.333 for fruit and vegetables combined. There was mixed support, however, for enhanced dietary change with multiple theories or a formal planning process. After controlling for study quality, theory use was related only to vegetable consumption (β = 0.373; P < .001). More research is needed on theory's influences on dietary behaviors to guide future interventions among children. More research is also needed to identify what may be effective practical- or experience-based procedures that complement theory, to incorporate into interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This study identified fruit, 100% juice and vegetables (FJV) consumption changes by meal among fourth grade students participating in Squire''s Quest!, a 10-session individually focused psychoeducational multimedia game with many meal/environment specific behavioral change techniques incorporated into the programming. Participants in 26 elementary schools were randomly assigned to treatment or control groups. Four days of dietary intake were assessed before and after the intervention to determine FJV servings consumed by meal. Overall, students receiving the intervention consumed 1.0 serving FJV more per day compared with control condition students. Using mixed model analysis of covariance, significant increases were found for servings of fruit and 100% fruit juice at snacks, and regular vegetables at lunch for intervention school children compared with children in control condition schools. These meals and snacks were targeted by the intervention activities and appear to represent eating occasions for which the children might have had more control. Interventions need to incorporate new procedures to more directly target intake at breakfast and dinner. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Background. This paper presents the rationale, reliability, and validity of a behavior-based food coding system for measuring fruit (F), juice (J), vegetable (V), sweetened beverage, and water consumption in children.Methods. Coding algorithms for FJV, sweetened beverages, and water were developed for use with the Nutrition Data System for Research (NDS-R). Two hundred and ten 8- to 10-year-old African American girls at four field centers completed two 24-h dietary recalls at baseline and at 12 weeks follow-up after a weight gain prevention intervention. Differences in mean baseline consumption of selected food variables and other selected nutrients across the four field centers were analyzed. Intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs) for reliability across 2 days of food recalls and 12-week test–retest reliability correlations were calculated. For the purposes of this paper, nutrient intake estimates were considered construct validators of food intake, and validity was assessed by correlating the coded food variable servings with nutrient intake.Results. ICCs varied from zero (0.001 for beta carotene equivalents) to moderate (0.44 for sucrose), indicating substantial instability in consumption or reporting. Twelve-week test–retest correlations were slight to moderate (0.09 for lycopene to 0.49 for folate). FJV consumption was negatively related to percent energy from fat (r = −0.28; P = 0.001) and positively related to other nutrients. Sweetened beverage consumption was positively related to energy, sucrose, fructose, and vitamin C consumption.Conclusions. This behavior-based food coding system demonstrated construct validity among 8- to 10-year-old African American girls and can measure the desired food groups. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Objective: Generate and test parents' understanding of values and associated reason statements to encourage effective food parenting practices. Methods: This study was cross-sectional. Sixteen parents from different ethnic groups (African American, white, and Hispanic) living with their 3- to 5-year-old child were recruited. Interested parents were directed to a Web site, where they provided screening information and informed consent. Two types of telephone interviews were used: semistructured intensive interviews and cognitive interviews. Results: The most common core values identified in the semistructured interview were religion/spirituality, family, and health, which appeared invariant across parent ethnicity. Parent responses to cognitive interviews enabled rephrasing of statements that were not well understood, the list of values was increased, and reason statements were added to cover the spectrum cited by parents. Conclusions and Implications: Values and reason statements will be used to tailor intrinsic motivational messages for effective food parenting practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]