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Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is the low yielding plant of medicinal and economic importance. Therefore, it is of interest to report the draft genome sequence of C. sativus. The draft genome of C. sativus has been assembled using Illumina sequencing and is 3.01 Gb long covering 84.24% of genome. C. sativus genome annotation identified 53,546 functional genes (including 5726 transcription factors), 862,275 repeats and 964,231 SSR markers. The genes involved in the apocarotenoids biosynthesis pathway (crocin, crocetin, picrocrocin, and safranal) were found in the draft genome analysis.

Saffron is one of the highly prized spices in the world. This spice is dark-red owing to the accumulation of crocins. Crocins are a group of carotenoid derivatives termed apocarotenoids with various health-promoting properties, especially anticancer and antidepressant ones. The present study aims to investigate the changes in the total crocin content in Crocus sativus stigma under salt stress. Additionally, plant resistance was evaluated by measuring the amounts of proline, soluble and insoluble sugars, potassium, and sodium in leaves. The corms about 80 g were planted in planting boxes under 6 levels of salinity (0, 2, 4, 6, 10 dS/m) in a completely random design with four replications. Results showed that after a relative decrease under electrical conductivities (EC) from 2 to 4 dS/m (49.62 mg/g DW), a sudden increase occurred in the total crocin content at the EC of 6 dS/m (63.07 mg/g DW). The amount of proline significantly increased at the EC of 4 dS/m (18.1 µg/g DW). With increasing levels of salinity, the amount of glucose, calcium, potassium, and sodium gradually increased in the leaves. Therefore, one of the advantages of saffron cultivation in saline areas or with saline water can be an increase in crocin. This not only brings huge economic benefits but also has a beneficial effect on human health.

Background: Herbal drugs and their derived phytochemicals are valuable for human beings as a source of a vital component of food material and drugs. Flavonoids are naturally occurring phytochemicals produced in plants through metabolisms, and they have anti-hyperlipidemia, anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant and anti-apoptotic activity. Flavonoids have been identified in fruits, nuts, vegetables, seeds, stems, flowers, and tea. Kaempferol is a natural flavonoidal compound present in edible plants such as apples, broccoli, strawberries, beans, grapefruit, propolis, and medicinal plants such as Aloe vera, Ginkgo biloba, Rosmarinus officinalis, Crocus sativus L., Hypericum perforatum L. Kaempferol have anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, proapoptotic, cardio-protective and anti-cancer activities. Methods: Glycosides of kaempferol such as kaempferitrin, also called kaempferol 3,7-dirhamnoside are known to be more abundant than their flavonoid monomers in plants. Various literature databases have been searched to collect all the scientific information of kaempferitrin in the present investigation and analyzed in order to know the therapeutic benefit and biological potential of kaempferitrin. Moreover, all the information has been presented here in two broad sections, i.e., pharmacological and analytical. Results: From the analysis of all the collected and presented information, it was found that kaempferitrin has potent insulin-mimetic potential and could be used for the treatment of diabetes and related complications. However, it has also shown anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-convulsant, anti-osteoporotic, anti-depressant, anthelmintic, immunostimulatory, and natriuretic properties and inhibits cell proliferation and apoptosis. Kaempferitrin also improves the meat quality of broiler chickens. Conclusions: The presented information in this work will be valuable to justify the biological importance and therapeutic potential of kaempferitrin in the scientific field.

Rhizospheric soils and corms of Crocus sativus L. accommodate 13 different nematode taxa in the saffron fields of Kishtwar, Jammu and Kashmir, India. Out of which, three are identified as free-living, two predatory and eight plant-parasitic. Among free-living, predatory and plant-parasitic nematodes Acrobeles spp., Mononchus spp. and Helicotylenchus spp. respectively were the most frequently and densely available nematodes with high prominence value. Shannon diversity index (H′ = 2.43) and evenness index (J = 0.95) determined that Crocus sativus L. rhizosphere in Kishtwar is rich in terms of nematode diversity.

Crocus sativus L. (Saffron) is a Mediterranean herb of the Iridaceae family. The dried stigmas of C. sativa plant are processed to produce well-known spice saffron rich in secondary metabolites (safranal, crocetin, terpenes, crocins, picrocrocin, kaempferol and quercetin) with a wide range of important biological activities in curing many human diseases. Around the world, saffron is considered to be the most expensive spice, with an estimated annual production of around 300 tons per year. Therapeutic efficacies of saffron are proved through pharmacological studies and it is considered as a promising candidate with potentials for designing new drugs. In different food supplements, saffron is mainly used due to its antioxidant properties, intense flavour, aroma and luminous yellow-orange hue. Worldwide it is used in everything from confectioneries, liquors, cheeses, curries, soups, baked goods and meat dishes. This review is aimed to summarize the ethnomedicinal importance, phytochemistry and acceptable daily intake with a wide spectrum of pharmacological and therapeutic applications of saffron.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is triploid (2 n = 3x = 24, x = 8), which limits its improvement through crop breeding programs. This study was initiated to induce hexaploidy with the intent of restori...

Saffron (Crocus sativus L) has been widely used for many therapeutic purposes such as a pain reliever, inflammation cure due to the highly bioactive compounds, and antioxidant activities. The effect of boiling time (5, 10, and 15 min) was investigated on the bioactive compounds of saffron samples from different origins (Spain, Saudi Arabia, and Afghanistan). Depending on the origin of the saffron sample, the extraction time showed a different effect on their total polyphenol content (TPC). The highest TPC was noted in saffron from Spain boiled for 10 min (45.01 mg GAE/g DW), followed by the sample from Saudi Arabia (44.03 mg GAE/g DW) and Afghanistan (43.54 mg GAE/g DW) boiled for 15 min, respectively. The Spanish saffron extracted for 10 min significantly (p < 0.05) exhibited the highest total flavonoid content (TFC) (12.26 mg CE/g DW), while the Saudi saffron extracted for 5 min (6.06 mg CE/g DW) showed the lowest range among all the samples. There were no significant differences among the reducing power of Saudi Arabian saffron extracted for 10 min, and Spanish saffron extracted for 5 and 15 min, respectively. The reducing power of saffron samples echoed the results of the TPC and TFC. 1,2-DHB (dihydroxy benzene), chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid are increased upon the increase of boiling time in Saudi Arabian saffron samples. In a word, 10 min and 15 min boiling times achieved the best extraction for Spanish saffron followed by Saudi and Afghani saffron samples, respectively.

Background: Oxymetholone, an anabolic-androgenic steroid, has been used to treat some diseases. The abuse of this compound, especially for muscle growth, has severe oxidative side effects on the liver and kidneys. Oxidative stress and free radicals are responsible for the development of various diseases. Phytochemicals are sources of polyphenols, flavonoids, saponins, etc. and may act as scavengers of free radicals. Saffron (Crocus sativus) has considerable antioxidant properties, which may be useful in reversing or preventing these negative effects. Methods: To evaluate the effects of saffron on the liver and kidneys degenerative changes induced by oxymetholone, 24 male Wistar rats were used. The rats were randomly divided into four groups of six rats each as: a) sham (normal saline, 40 mg/kg/day), b) saffron control (40 mg/kg/day), c) oxymetholone (50 mg/rat), and d) treatment group [saffron (40 mg/kg/day)+oxymetholone (50 mg/rat)]. The course of examination was 30 days. Results: After one month, the sham and saffron control groups had normal histological findings. The treatment group with saffron showed a significant reduction in the hepatic and renal degenerative changes induced by oxymetholone compared to those observed in group. Conclusion: Based on the histopathological results, the use of saffron produced protective effects against the degenerative changes in rats’ liver and kidneys induced by oxymetholone.

BACKGROUND Saffron tepals are a by-product from the processing of Crocus sativus flowers, whose dried stigmas (saffron spice) are widely used both in the food and health sectors. Saffron tepals are rich in polyphenols, particularly flavonol glycosides and anthocyanins, which are considered to be potent antioxidants. Enzyme-assisted extraction of polyphenols offers several advantages in comparison to conventional methods. The present study evaluated the efficiency of enzyme-assisted extraction as a green technology for recovery of polyphenols from saffron tepals. METHODS The by-product was obtained from a saffron producer in the region of Kozani, Greece. A simplex-centroid design was applied to select the enzyme preparations mixture required for aqueous extraction of polyphenolic antioxidants from dried saffron tepals. In addition, the parameters of enzymatic hydrolysis, enzyme dose and incubation time were optimised using response surface methodology. RESULTS The binary combination, comprising cellulolytic and hemicellulolytic preparations (1:1), led to the highest yield of total polyphenols (30.9 g GAE/kg saffron tepals) and total anthocyanins (2.0 g CGE/kg saffron tepals), reaching 45% and 38% higher values, respectively, as compared to the control sample (without enzymatic treatment). The experimental data regarding optimisation of the extraction conditions were fitted to second-degree regression models (R2 = 0.85-0.98). CONCLUSIONS The newly developed process may be applied as an environmentally friendly alternative to conventional organic solvent extraction, thus supporting valorisation of the saffron industry by-product. The polyphenols recovered could be used as biologically active substances or as natural food ingredients, replacing synthetic additives.

Saffron is considered as most prominent food product used in medicine, flavouring and colouring substances due to its bioactive compounds that have health-boosting characteristics. Saffron has been...

Food ingredients hold a higher nutritional value as a botanical supplement playing a vital role in modifying and maintaining the physiological conditions that improve human health benefits. The Kashmir saffron (Crocus sativus L; KCS) obtained from dried stigmas is known for its aroma precursors and apocarotenoid derivatives, imparting a wide range of medicinal values and therapeutic benefits. In the present study, a simultaneous determination of apocarotenoids and flavonoids in stigma-based botanical supplements was carried out using analytical investigations. The high-performance thin-layer chromatography-based qualitative analysis of the raw material (stigmas, stamens, and tepals) and stigma extract has been carried out to identify apocarotenoids and flavonoids. The rapid HPLC-PDA method for the simultaneous quantification of KCS apocarotenoids was robust, precise ( 0.99), and accurate (80-110%) as per the single-laboratory validation data. Furthermore, the combined-expanded uncertainty (95%; K = 2) was calculated and found as 0.0035-0.007% (

Two MYB genes have been identified which regulate apocarotenoid metabolism in Crocus sativus. Apocarotenoids like crocin, picrocrocin and safranal are restricted to genus Crocus and are synthesized by oxidative cleavage of zeaxanthin followed by glycosylation reactions. In Crocus sativus, these apocarotenoids are synthesized in stigma part of the flower in developmentally regulated manner. Most of the genes of apocarotenoid pathway are known, however, the mechanism that regulates its tissue and stage specific biosynthesis remains elusive. MYB family was identified as the largest transcription factor family from Crocus transciptome which indicated its possible role in apocarotenoid regulation besides regulating other metabolic pathways. Towards this, we started with identification of 150 MYB genes from Crocus transcriptome databases. The phylogenetic analysis of Crocus MYB genes divided them into 27 clusters. Domain analysis resulted in identification of four groups of MYBs depending upon the number of R repeats present. Expression profiling indicated that 12 MYBs are upregulated in stigma out of which expression of four genes CstMYB1, CstMYB14, CstMYB16 and CstMYB1R2 correlated with crocin accumulation. Transient overexpression of two nuclear localized MYB genes (CstMYB1 and CstMYB1R2) in Crocus confirmed their role in regulating carotenoid metabolism. Yeast-one-hybrid confirmed that CstMYB1 binds to carotenoid cleavage dioxygenase 2 (CCD2) promoter while CstMYB1R2 binds to phytoene synthase (PSY) and CCD2 promoters. Overall, our study established that CstMYB1 and CstMYB1R2 regulate apocarotenoid biosynthesis by directly binding to promoters of pathway genes.

Dried stigmas of Crocus sativus L., is known as traditional medicine for anti-inflammatory, anti-cancer properties, and its associated with secondary metabolites of this plant. The present research was designed in order to study the effect of osmotic and nano-particles' stress on yield of anti-inflammatory compounds and the activity of several antioxidant enzymes in saffron. Polyethylen glycol (PEG) 6000 (12%) and solution of 2 mM of nano-silica were applied two weeks before flowering on the surface of potted plants. HPLC analysis and measuring the activity of antioxidant enzymes were done on samples from leaf and flower tissue in the control and treated plants. Outcomes showed that both PEG and nano-silica treatments elevated the content of crocin, picrocrocin, safranal, and crocetin and raised the activity of superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT) and ascorbate peroxidase (APX) enzymes compared to the control treatment. The relative content of water was also increased by nano-silica and reduced with polyethylene glycol elicitors. It can be concluded that in saffron, osmotic adjustment under stress conditions results in biochemical responses as a secondary messenger which in turn induces the production of an appropriate secondary metabolite. Due to economic importance and increased demand of secondary metabolites and also high costs of their chemical synthesis, the application of PEG and nano-silica elicitors could increase secondary metabolites' production.

The endophytic diversity of a host plant has been shown to vary across various spatio-temporal scales and between different organs of a plant, but no such study has been carried out on the economically important plant Crocus sativus (saffron). To fill this knowledge gap, the present study was undertaken to document the diversity of culturable bacterial, actinomycete and fungal endophytes at multiple sites from vegetative and reproductive organs of C. sativus. A total of 1170 culturable endophytic isolates were recovered from 6480 tissue segments of C. sativus collected from six different study sites in Pampore region of Kashmir valley in India. These isolates were identified using 16S and ITS (internal transcribed spacer) rDNA barcode sequence analysis and were classified into 84 operational taxonomic units (OTUs), including 52 bacterial OTUs, 7 actinomycete OTUs and 25 fungal OTUs. The phylogenetic analysis of sequences separated them into four phyla, namely, Firmicutes (46%), Ascomycota (30%), Proteobacteria (16%) and Actinobacteria (8%). Significant differences were observed in the diversity of endophytic assemblages across various study sites and different plant organs (P ≤ 0.001). Species richness was highest at the Baroosa site and lowest at the Chandhar site while the Shannon index was highest at the Baroosa site and lowest at the Letpur site. Among organs, species richness was highest in stigma and lowest in leaf. Similarly, Shannon index was highest for root and lowest for leaf. Further, 15 culturable endophytic OTUs showed organ specificity. The present study is the first comprehensive report that not only brings out differences in the diversity of endophytes associated with different organs and at different sites but also highlights the complexity of host-endophyte interaction at multiple scales.

The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effect of Afghan Ferula assa-foetida L. and Crocus Sativus L. aqueous extracts either alone or in combination on morphine withdrawal signs. For this purpose, rats were randomly divided into 13 groups (1 Normal, 1 Morphine, 4 Ferula assa-foetida-treated groups, 4 Crocus sativus-treated groups, and 3 combination groups). Morphine dependency was rendered by subcutaneous injection of morphine hydrochloride for 4 days (10, 20 and 40 mg/kg doses twice daily for 3 days and a single dose of 60 mg/kg on 4th day). Various doses of extracts were injected into extract groups simultaneously with morphine. After two hours of last morphine administration, withdrawal signs were induced by naloxone (3 mg/kg) and noted for 30 minutes. According to the results, different doses of Ferula assa-foetida and Crocus sativus extracts and their combination (in low dose) could significantly decrease the number of morphine withdrawal signs (P

Saffron is an aromatic herb appreciated for its olfactory qualities, but also for its medicinal contributions, having multiple pharmaceutical properties. The cultivation of saffron in Romania is rather little known, the scientific data obtained being of interest for farmers who want to start such a culture. In this paper two populations of saffron were studied, the bulbs being of the same origin and age, grown in two different localities in western Romania: Izvin and Cicir. Regarding the quality characteristics, the two cultures belong to quality categories 1 and 2, and analyses were determined on moisture, colouring power (crocin), aromatic power (safranal) and bitterness power (picrocrocin). From a quantitative point of view, the variability of morphological characters, the manifestation of morphological characters, the coefficients of corallance on characters such as: number of bulbs, total diameter of bulbs, diameter of dominant bulb, length of leaflet, leaf length, leaf width, number of leaves dominant bulb, petal length, petal width, petal number, stamen length, stigma length were determined.

There has been lately a phenomenal rise in the use of natural dyes in different areas, although the principal problem with these natural dyes is their high cost for the production. The main idea of this study is to convert the waste of saffron flower to an eco-friendly natural colorant for sustainable textile coloration of wool fabric. This work studies the stability of saffron flower extract (SFE) by UV-Vis spectroscopic analysis, thermo-gravimetric analysis, and differential scanning calorimetry, the use of mordants, and the color fastness of wool fabric dyed. SFE has good thermal and pH stability under acidic conditions; it would be suitable for textile dyeing processes. The optimized dyeing conditions such as: dye concentration of 6 % for direct dyeing and 2 % for mordant dyeing (dyeing in the presence of mordant), pH value of 3, dyeing temperature of 90 °C, and dyeing time of 60 min are obtained for better dyeing performance of wool with about 60 % bath exhaustion rate after pre-mordanting. A range of colors from brown to green are obtained with good fastness to washing, wet and dry rubbing, acid and alkaline perspiration, and an acceptable color fastness to light. In general, the abundantly available agricultural by-product SFE has considerable potential to be utilized as a natural textile dyestuff.

Background: Due to the high prevalence of NCDs and treatment costs, many medical providers are looking for alternative medications, especially herbal medicine, and some herbal medicines can be used as an effective therapy for the treatment of NCDs. Many studies have shown the effective use of saffron to impede and treat different types of non-communicable diseases. Aim: This current review focuses on the medicinal uses of saffron and current findings relating to the effects of saffron on different types of non-communicable diseases. Methods: Cochrane library, Pub Med, and Google Scholar databases were searched from 2000 to 2020 before September to accumulate current findings with the limitation of the English language. Result: A total of 33 studies (8 human and 25 animalstudies) were identified through searching. Saffron and its active components improved lipid profile along with lowering the risk of cardiovascular disease, hypertension, diabetes, and obesity. Kidney function was also improved by reducing nitrogen urea, urinary citrate, uric acid, etc. Saffron can be also used for treating different types of cancer like prostate cancer, skin cancer, breast cancer, etc. Conclusion: Despite the beneficial effects of saffron on non-communicable diseases, more prospective clinical trials among humans and animals are needed for a better understanding of the effects and mechanisms of saffron and its compounds.

Introduction: The present study investigated the hepatoprotective effects of stigmas, tepals and leaves of Crocus sativus on carbon tetrachloride (CCL4) induced liver injury in rats. Methods: Hydroethanolic extracts of Crocus sativus (stigmas, tepals and leaves) were administrated daily for 14 days by oral gavage. In the present study, 30 male rats divided into five groups were treated as 1: normal rats gavaged with distilled water; 2: intoxicated rats gavaged with distilled water and injected with CCL4; 3: rats treated with stigmas extract and injected with CCL4; 4: rats treated with tepal extract and injected with CCL4; 5: rats treated with leaf extract and injected with CCL4. Bodyweight and the relative liver weight were determined. Alanine aminotransferase (ALT), aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), total cholesterol, triglycerides, bilirubin direct and total, total protein, albumin, urea and creatinine measured in plasma. Malondialdehyde (MDA) was quantified in liver homogenate. Results: The experimental data showed that the stigmas and tepals extracts significantly prevented weight body loss and improved the relative liver weight. They significantly protected against elevation of ALT, AST, direct bilirubin, total bilirubin, LDH, ALP, creatinine and MDA. Also, they enhanced significantly total proteins and albumin compared to the CCL4 control group. Moreover, leaves reduced ALT, AST, total bilirubin, LDH and MDA significantly. Conclusion: In conclusion, these results suggest that tepals, stigmas, and leaves extracts of Crocus sativus have hepatoprotective effects on CCL4 induced liver injury in rats.

The purpose of the article is to study the allelopathic activity of generative organs of Crocus sativus L. (saffron crocus) as a new promising crop for the agrophytocenoses of Ukraine, which has valuable properties and it is used in various industries: the official pharmacopoeia for the treatment of nervous disorders, cancer and the food industry as a valuable spice and organic dye. For safe cultivation of the crop and prevention of soil fatigue, it is necessary to study the effect of water-soluble flower secretions that remain in the fields after removing the stigmas of pistils. Materials and methods. The materials for the research were plants of Crocus sativus, grown on the plots of the Mykolaiv National Agrarian University during 2019-2020. The research was conducted in 2020 on the basis of university laboratories. The collection of flowers and the study of allelopathic activity of water-soluble secretions were carried out in accordance with generally accepted methods. Results and discussion. As a result of our research, it was found that water-soluble secretions of Crocus sativus flowers and their parts at different concentrations stimulated the energy of seed germination and the growth of single-day seedlings L. sativum. There was a lower germination energy in the "perianth+pistil" variant at a filtrate concentration of 0.02%. With an increase in the filtrate concentration, there was a decrease in root growth for all variants except the "perianth+pistil" variant: the lowest decrease was at a concentration of 0.09 and the highest one was at 0.02 compared to the control (7.58 and 4.77%). The coefficient of variation in the root length of one-day seedlings of the test plant had a very high coefficient of variation (>40%) for all variants, except for the "perianth+pistil" variant, which was characterized by a high indicator. For perianth secretions, when the concentration increased, allelopathic activity increased from insignificant inhibitory activity (-0.98) up to stimulating activity (35.70). Other variants were characterized by an inhibitory effect. Conclusion. The growth of allelopathic activity of water-soluble secretions of flower elements at different concentrations can be depicted in the following order: for the perianth it was 0.010.09; for the perianth and stamen it was 0.010.09, for the perianth with a pistil it was 0.010.09. The highest indicators of allelopathic activity of water-soluble secretions of flowers detected at a concentration of 0.02%

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is one of the most important crops produced globally, and in only a limited number of countries. Determining the best conditions for cultivating this crop is important. ...

Cataract, which is the opacity inside clear ocular lens of eye, result in the scattering of visible light as it passes via the lens and consequently deterioration in optical image. The aim of the present study was to investigate whether safranal, an active constituent of Crocus sativus L. stigmas, has a protective effect on the cataract in the rat's pups. The animals were randomly divided into five groups, each of which consisted of 7 rat pups. Group I served as normal control (vehicle administration). For testing cataract induction, animals of Groups II, III, and IV were administered a single subcutaneous injection of sodium selenite on postpartum day 12. After sodium selenite intoxication, Group II served as control selenite, Groups III-IV received intraperitoneal safranal at doses of 200, and 300 mg/kg, respectively from the 11th day through the 17th day, while group V receive only safranal (300 mg/kg). On postpartum day 30, the rat pups were examined for cataract formation, and the lenses were isolated for further analysis. This study found that selenite caused significant (p < 0.05) cataract formation. Through the effects of selenite on the level of lipid peroxidation (MDA) which was upregulated. Furthermore, the antioxidant enzymes levels GSH levels and NRF2 protein were downregulated. In contrast, treatment with safranal could significantly (p < 0.05) ameliorate cataract formation and oxidative damage in the lens. Moreover, safranl administration significantly increased the protein expressions of Nrf2 and the GSH level, in addition to reducing the level both the MDA and the level soluble proteins in the lens. Taken together, safranal is a prospective anti-cataract agent that probably delays the onset and progression of cataracts induced by sodium selenite.

This article observed the generative phase of the saffron plant grown in Termez conditions. Based on the data obtained, the daily and seasonal flowering dynamics of the plant were constructed.

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is a monocotyledonous herbaceous triploid plant that produces the most expensive spice in the world. Its main constituents, crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal, are responsible for color, taste, and aroma, respectively. The saffron plant produces a red-colored spice that is important in pharmaceutics, cosmetics, perfumery, and textile dye-producing industries. Iran produces almost 90% of the total world production. The saffron market is expected to grow by 12.09% in the forecast period 2020 to 2027. This paper reviews the current knowledge about the taxonomy, geographical distribution, reproductive biology, chemical composition, therapeutic and traditional uses, and agro-technology of the world’s most expensive spice crop, saffron.

Background Saffron (Crocus Sativus L.) is an ancient spice, having a long history of therapeutic and medicinal uses, in different countries around the world. Saffron has high market value with ever increasing demand but, its producing areas are limited due to requirement of specific agro-climatic conditions for growth of Saffron. Therefore, fraudulent practices are frequently employed by the traders, to meet up the market demands, as well as fetching higher economic benefits. In contemporary scenario of global trading, it is imperative to authenticate the quality of Saffron that can be done by modern instruments and techniques, available for determination of adulterants. Scope and approach In this review, a brief overview of different adulterants including plant based and chemical based origin is provided, along with detailed discussion on varied number of techniques including chromatographic techniques, spectroscopic techniques, sensor based techniques and molecular techniques, employed for determination of adulteration in Saffron in various countries. Key findings and conclusions Adulteration by extraneous materials, not only lowers down the quality of Saffron but it may also lead to severe health complications in public. Different techniques have certain advantages with some limitations regarding detection limit and their suitability for detection of specific type of adulterants (natural or synthetic). In this review, various techniques already in use or having futuristic potential for detection of different types of adulterants in Saffron are discussed, that can pave the way of future research efforts.

Depression is a chronic and debilitating psychiatric disorder that affects 300 million people worldwide. Pharmacotherapy is one of the treatments. Due to delay in initiating treatment efficacy and the incomplete response to mono-drug therapy in one-third of patients, new approaches need to be considered. One of the ways to overcome this resistance to treatment and to enhance standard medical practice is to add complementary medicines. We aimed to document research progress from studies on integrative medicine for the treatment of depression. Review of PubMed and Scopus databases on the topic and a personal collection of the relevant publications are the sources for this study. Some of the nutraceuticals and complementary medicines in the treatment of depression will be reviewed. Supplements discussed in this review include S-adenosyl-methionine (SAMe), Crocus sativus (Saffron), carnosine, theanine, palmitoylethanolamide (PEA), tryptophan and 5-hydroxytryptophan (5-HTP), gemfibrozil, curcumin (the main active ingredient in turmeric), Hypericum perforatum (St John's wort), Lavandula angustifolia (Lavender), and Cinnamomum tamala. Despite evidence in favor of the antidepressant effect of several supplements, their efficacy and tolerability should be evaluated and validated by further high-quality studies.

Crocus sativus L. (Iridaceae) known as saffron is the most commercially important medicinal food product in Iran and worldwide because of its significance for exporting commercial. However, the health of this plant is adversely threatened by abiotic and biotic stress. Bulb mite Rhizoglyphus robini Claparede (Acari: Acaridae) as abiotic stress is oligophagous and the main pest of tuber plants, commonly found in all the cultivated saffron producing areas could decrease saffron economic value. The mites tunnel through corms allowing the entry of fungal and bacterial pathogens. The widespread use of commercial pesticides in modern agriculture to protect crops from pests has caused significant public concern because of their side impacts on the environment and non-target species. Nanotechnology has been used in the production, processing, storage, packaging, and transport of agricultural products. Newly, oxide nanoparticles have been introduced as novel pesticides against pests and fertilizer. This study was conducted as an effective and environmentally-friendly method to control the growth of Rhizoglyphus robini. The lethal and sublethal effects of metal oxide nanoparticles (MNPs) including nano copper oxides (nano-CuO), nano magnesium oxide (nano-MgO), nano zinc oxide (nano-ZnO), nano titanium dioxide (nano-TiO2), and nano iron oxide (nano-Fe2O3) which their lethal concentrations ranged between 159.2 and 1036.4 mg L-1 were studied on Rhizoglyphus robini adult females. The contact effect of the tested MNPs was evaluated using the corm dip bioassay method. Assays showed that the contact toxicity of the nano-CuO treatment (229.1 mg L-1) was higher than other MNPs. To assess the sublethal effects of the MNPs, adult females were exposed to the LC25 concentration of MNPs, and life history and life-table parameters of the surviving Rhizoglyphus robini were investigated. The exposure to sublethal concentrations of the tested MNPs prolonged the egg incubation, larval period, and nymphal period significantly when compared to the control mites. Compared to other MNPs or control mite, nano-MgO and nano-TiO2 led to the longest duration of the total immature stages (11.32 and 11.32, respectively). The net reproductive rate (R0), the intrinsic rate of increase (rm), the finite rate of increase (λ), and the generation time (T) were significantly different between control and MNP treatments. The population exposed to ZnO-, MgO-, and TiO2-nanoformulations had a much lower rm value (0.164, 0.164, and 0.171 d-1, respectively) compared to the control population (0.231 d-1) and those exposed to Fe3O4- and CuO-nanoformulations (1.19 and 1.19 d-1, respectively). According to our findings, all tested MNPs, especially CuO-, ZnO-, and MgO-nano formulations, have a potential application for use in the management of Rhizoglyphus robini.

Crocus sativus L. (saffron), was applied as a spice, food colorant and medicine since four millennia ago and has been used as a remedy for various maladies. In the last three decades, the anti-primary tumor properties of saffron and its main carotenoids, crocin and crocetin, have been well explored. Despite the fact that metastasis is the leading cause of death in cancer patients, the anti-metastatic potential of saffron and its carotenoids has been surveyed only this decade. This review aims to provide an unprecedented overview of the anti-metastatic effects of saffron, crocin and crocetin, and the mechanisms underlying these effects. Investigations on various cancers demonstrated the anti-migratory, anti-invasion, anti-angiogenic potentials of saffron and its carotenoids, as well as their effects suppressing cell-ECM adhesion and enhancing cell-cell attachment. Saffron and its carotenoids exert their impact through different mechanisms such as reduction of CD34 and suppression of Wnt/β-catenin, Ras/ERK, P38, DCLK1, EMT, matrix metalloproteinases and urokinases. Crocin displayed more effective anti-metastatic potency, in comparison with saffron extract and crocetin. The bioaccessibility/bioavailability, nontoxicity on normal cells, confirmed anti-tumor efficiency and the recent evidence on the anti-metastatic potential of saffron and its carotenoids, recommends them as a propitious multipotent dietary agent and herbal medicine.

Stroke is the second leading cause of death and a main cause of disability worldwide. The majority (approximately 80%) of strokes are ischemic. Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) has been considered for medicinal purposes since ancient times. Pharmacological effects of saffron are attributed to the presence of crocin, crocetin, picrocrocin, and safranal. In the present review, we summarized the reported neuroprotective effects of saffron and its active constituents against cerebral ischemia stroke. Saffron and its components exert its beneficial effects as an antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and antiapoptotic agent though inhibition of biochemical, inflammatory, and oxidative stress markers. Taken together, this review indicates that saffron and its ingredients could be a potent candidate in the process of new drug production for the treatment of ischemia stroke.

Crocus sativus L. from the Iridaceae family is a medicinal and edible plant that has recently been actively cultivated in Ukraine. Saffron spice is crocus flower stigmas exhibiting a wide range of the pharmacological activity due to its three main bioactive compounds: crocin, picrocrocin and safranal. The quality of this raw material is regulatedby various normative documents, but there is no monograph in the State Pharmacopoeia of Ukraine (SPhU). Aim. To perform a comparative analysis of the monograph “Saffron for homoeopatic preparations” from the Ph. Eur. 9.0, “Saffron. Croci stigma” from the Deutscher arzneimittel codex (DAC) and “Spices – Saffron (Crocus sativus L.)” from the ISO 3632 by the following indicators: description, identifcation (microscopy and TLC), impurities, loss on drying, total ash and quantifcation of crocin, picrocrocin and safranal by UV-Vis-spectrophotometry to clarify the possibility of harmonizing the requirements of the national legal framework for Crocus stigmas withthe Ph. Eur. 9.0, DAC and ISO 3632. The results of the analysis will be taken into account in the development of the monograph of the national part of the SPhU “Crocus stigmas (saffron)”.Results and discussion. The quality indicators of Crocus stigmas and their standardization determinedby the monograph in the Ph. Eur. 9.0, DAC and ISO 3632 on the raw material studied have been analyzed; some differences in the regulated quality indicators of the raw material have been found. The results of our own research have shown that the samples of the Ukrainian Crocus (saffron) meet all these requirements. The results of the macro- and microscopic examination of the raw material are given. The chromatographic examination hasbeen performed in accordance with the Ph. Eur. 9.0 and DAC using crocin as a standard compound; the quantitative determination of crocin, picrocrocin and safranal in 8 samples of Crocus stigmas has been performed by UV-Vis-spectrophotometry in accordance with the ISO 3632. It has been proposed to introduce the following indicators to determine the specifc absorption rate: for crocin (C44H64O24; Mw – 976.70) not less than 180, for safranal (C10H14O; Mw – 150.22) – not less than 30, for picrocrocin (C16H26O7; Mw – 330.37) – not less than 60 calculated with reference to the dried raw material.Experimental part. For analysis the dried stigmas of Crocus sativus (saffron) collected in the villageLyubimivka, Kherson region, Ukraine (2016-2018), as well as commercial samples of saffron from Morocco,Azerbaijan, Spain were used. The analysis of the leading normative documents containing monographs “Crocus stigmas”, among them the Eur. Ph. 9.0, DAC and ISO 3632, was performed. The studies included description of the appearance of the whole Crocus stigmas; loss on drying and the mass fraction of volatile compounds (105 °C, 16 h); the mass fraction of total ash. The amount of picrocrocin, safranal and crocin was measured by direct reading of the absorption of 1 % aqueous solution of stigmas at 257 nm, 330 nm and 440 nm, respectively, usinga UV-Vis-spectrophotometer.Conclusions. The analysis of the requirements to quality of the medicinal raw material – stigmas of Crocus sativus – has been performed based on the monographs: “Saffron for homoeopatic preparations” from the Ph. Eur. 9.0, “Saffron. Croci stigma” from the Deutscher arzneimittel codex and “Spices – Saffron (Crocus sativus L.)” from the ISO 3632. The main criteria for standardization of the raw material have been determined. It has been proposed to introduce the monograph to the national part of the SPhU “Crocus stigmas (saffron)” according to the following requirements: identifcation (macro- and microscopic signs; thin-layer chromatography (crocin); the quantitativedetermination (the content of crocin, picrocrocin and safranal) adapted to the ISO 3632, performed by UV-Vis-spectrophotometry; impurities; loss on drying; total ash.Key words: standardization; State Pharmacopoeia of Ukraine; Crocus sativus stigma; saffron; crocin

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is one of the most important global crops produced only in a limited number of countries. Determining the best conditions for cultivating this crop is important and the ...

Background: Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD) is a chronic and disabling mental disorder encountered in neurologic practice. In spite of the several classes of drugs that are available for the treatment of OCD, full remission remains challenging. Research on herbal remedies has grown over the last decade. Objective: This present review article provides information regarding the plants that exhibited protective effects on OCD. Methods: To retrieve articles related to the study, Web of Science, PubMed (NLM), Open Access Journals, LISTA (EBSCO), and Google Scholar, with keywords including Medicinal plants, Psychiatric disorders, Obsessive-compulsive disorder and Phytomedicine were used. Results: The plants which are used for the treatment of OCD are: Citrus aurantium, Crocus sativus, Benincasa hispida, Withania somnifera, Colocasia esculenta, Hypericum perforatum, Valeriana officinalis, Lagenaria siceraria and Echium amoenum. Conclusion: This review suggests that some medicinal plants can be potential drug candidates for the treatment of OCD. Aside from this, the future focus should be on the standardization of herbal extracts, and further research is required to be performed on the concept of mechanism. Clinical research in this area is in its infancy and warrants further clinical research.

Crocetin biosynthesis in Buddleja davidii flowers proceeds through a zeaxanthin cleavage pathway catalyzed by two carotenoid cleavage dioxygenases (BdCCD4.1 and BdCCD4.3), followed by oxidation and glucosylation reactions that lead to the production of crocins. We isolated and analyzed the expression of 12 genes from the carotenoid pathway in B. davidii flowers and identified four candidate genes involved in the biosynthesis of crocins (BdALDH, BdUGT74BC1, BdUGT74BC2, and BdUGT94AA3). In addition, we characterized the profile of crocins and their carotenoid precursors, following their accumulation during flower development. Overall, seven different crocins, crocetin, and picrocrocin were identified in this study. The accumulation of these apocarotenoids parallels tissue development, reaching the highest concentration when the flower is fully open. Notably, the pathway was regulated mainly at the transcript level, with expression patterns of a large group of carotenoid precursor and apocarotenoid genes (BdPSY2, BdPDS2, BdZDS, BdLCY2, BdBCH, BdALDH, and BdUGT Genes) mimicking the accumulation of crocins. Finally, we used comparative correlation network analysis to study how the synthesis of these valuable apocarotenoids diverges among B. davidii, Gardenia jasminoides, and Crocus sativus, highlighting distinctive differences which could be the basis of the differential accumulation of crocins in the three species.

The existence of genetic diversity in Crocus sativus has globally remained a mystery till date. The study investigated PCR based DNA amplification profile of saffron using ISSR and RAPD based primers. A total of 38 amplicons were generated by ISSR primers in the range from 7 to 12 with an average of 9.50 bands per primer. 20 bands were found to be polymorphic and 18 were monomorphic with an average percentage of polymorphism as 52.48%. RAPD based amplification revealed a total 161 amplicons, 107 as polymorphic and 54 as monomorphic with an average percentage of polymorphism as 66.44%. Cumulative results of RAPD and ISSR demonstrated that Nei-Li’s similarity index ranged between 0.70 and 0.97. The results of AMOVA has revealed 9% of variance among populations and 91% of variance within populations, Φ PT was found as 0.089, which indicates existence of genetic differences though limited. In conclusion, the results indicate that saffron accessions are minimally genetically differentiated, which could be capitalized in future breeding programmes to ameliorate this precious crop.

A 2-years field experiment in a split-split plot arrangement was considered to investigate the effects of different irrigation water salinity [0.45 (well water, S1), 1.0 (S2), 2.0 (S3), 3.0 (S4) dS m−1], irrigation water levels [100% (I1), 75% (I2) and 50% (I3) of saffron water requirement (WR)] and planting methods [basin (P1) and in-furrow (P2)] on the dynamics of salt ions and their uptake by saffron plant (Crocus sativus L.). The electrical conductivity of soil saturation extract (ECe) was increased by 104% in S4 compared to control (S1), on average, in two growing seasons. S4 treatment increased concentration of sodium (Na+), calcium (Ca2+), potassium (K+) and chloride (Cl−) in soil by 102%, 92%, 124% and 128% in comparison with S1, on average, in two growing seasons. The concentration of Na+, Ca2+, K+ and Cl− in soil in S4 were 30%, 15%, 28% and 29% higher and NO3 was 30.3% lower in I1 in comparison with I3, respectively. The ions concentration in soil were 3.5–14.7% higher in P1 in comparison with those in P2. Leaf Na+, Ca2+ and Cl− concentration was increased by increase in irrigation water salinity while K+, nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) concentrations were decreased by 28.4%, 25.7% and 29.8% in S4 in comparison with that obtained in S1, on average, which is presumably due to reduced NO3 and P concentrations in soil and increased Na+ uptake by saffron. Also, deficit irrigation reduced soil and leaf ions (Na+ and Cl−) threshold and increased the slope of relative yield-ions concentration reduction function, which indicated that water stress aggravates saffron sensitivity to salinity and ions concentration in soil and leaf. Results indicated that saffron was more sensitive to Na+ concentration in soil extract compared with Cl−. Na+ and Cl− threshold was 19.3% and 27.1% higher in P2, on average, in different irrigation levels, respectively. Therefore, the in-furrow planting method is suggested to cope with unfavorable saffron field conditions.

Gas chromatography with mass spectrometry detection (GC-MS) coupled with headspace-solid-phase microextraction (HS-SPME) was used to analyse the aroma profile of genuine saffron (Crocus sativus L.) and samples of this spice artificially adulterated with Calendula officinalis L. petals (calendula), Carthamus tinctorius L. petals (safflower) and Curcuma longa L. powdered rhizomes (turmeric). Preliminary analyses of genuine saffron and pure contaminants were performed to select the kind of SPME sorbent. Moreover, an experimental design combined with response surface methodology was applied to optimise the sample temperature and the fibre exposure time with the aim of enhancing the detection of the above adulterants in counterfeited saffron samples. The GC-MS chromatograms collected under the optimised conditions were finally handled by unsupervised and supervised multivariate statistical methods to differentiate the genuine saffron samples produced in three different Italian regions from artificially adulterated samples at 2–5% w/w contamination levels. Thirty genuine and 30 counterfeited (10 for each kind of adulterant) saffron samples were analysed. Principal component analysis was applied to assist the choice of the GC/MS data pre-treatment and classification of genuine and adulterated saffron samples was attempted by partial least square-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA). Predictive performance of PLS-DA models calibrated with 42 samples was finally tested on 18 saffron samples (9 genuine and 9 adulterated). All the external saffron samples were correctly classified regardless of the kind of contaminant, while in calibration, only a saffron sample contaminated with safflower was erroneously assigned to the group of genuine ones. Class modelling of genuine saffron performed by SIMCA (Soft Independent Model Class Analogy) exhibited a good sensitivity and 100% specificity for external adulterated samples.

Saffron possesses important medicinal properties, all of which are due to the secondary metabolites such as crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal. This study aims at investigating biosynthesis of the secondary metabolites during growth of saffron callus cells in a suspension culture, and examining the expression of genes controlling the metabolites. Sterilized saffron corms were cultured in a MS½ medium supplemented by 2-4-D and BAP. The calluses were induced after fourteen days, and then put into the suspension culture after being four times subcultured. From the 8th to 14th day after establishment of the suspension culture, the amount of secondary metabolites was measured by HPLC, and gene expressions were analyzed with real-time PCR for three samples taken once a day at the same time from the suspension. It was found that the amount of secondary metabolites and expression of the corresponding genes (CsLYC, CsBCH and CsGT2) were saturated on the 12th day after establishment of the suspension. For the most effective stimulation of genes and biosynthesis of apocarotenoids, suitable elicitors and precursors should be added within 72 h before saturation of the synthesis rate which happens on the 12th day after establishment of the suspension.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of calcium nanoparticles (CaNP) and putrescine polyamine on some physiological and biochemical properties of saffron (Crocus sativus L.) under the control condition. Saffron corm was treated by different concentrations of putrescine (0, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 2 mM) and CaNP (0, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 1.5 g/l). The treatment of corm with putrescine and CaNP separately caused a significant increase in morphological parameters. Changes in biochemical parameters were also significant. Compared to other concentrations, the highest concentration of putrescine (1 mM) and CaNP (1 g/l) treatment in the plant showed the greatest effect. The combined effect of putrescine and CaNP treatment on morphological parameters was significant. The results of HPLC analysis showed that CaNP treatment alone is more effective on crocin, picrocrocin, and safranal content than the combined effect of CaNP and putrescine. The present study reported the functional potential of CaNP and putrescine combination to increase growth and phytochemical properties in Crocus sativus.

To evaluate the alleviative effects of saffron (Crocus sativus) petal extract (SPE) on growth performance, blood biochemical indices, antioxidant status, and immunity of heat-stressed broilers, 250 newly hatched male broiler chickens were randomly allocated to control diet (basal diet, two groups), or control diet supplemented with 300, 500, or 700 mg SPE/kg diet, with five replicates and 10 birds each. The broiler chickens, except one of the control groups, were exposed to heat stress (HS, 37 ± 1 °C, 55% relative humidity) for 6 h/day from day 25 to 42. Heat stress reduced body weight gain (BWG), feed intake (FI), and abdominal fat percentage, and increased feed conversion ratio (FCR, p

Saffron (Crocus sativus L., family Iridaceae) is used traditionally for medicinal purpose in Chinese, Ayurvedic, Persian and Unani medicines. The bioactive constituents such as apocarotenoids, monoterpenoids, flavonoids, phenolic acids and phytosterols are widely investigated in experimental and clinical studies for a wide range of therapeutic effects, especially on the nervous system. Some of the active constituents of saffron have high bioavailability and bioaccessibility and ability to pass the blood-brain barrier. Multiple preclinical and clinical studies have supported neuroprotective, anxiolytic, antidepressant, learning and memory-enhancing effect of saffron and its bioactive constituents (safranal, crocin, and picrocrocin). Thus, this plant and its active compounds could be a beneficial medicinal food ingredient in the formation of drugs targeting nervous system disorders. This review focuses on phytochemistry, bioaccessibility, bioavailability, and bioactivity of phytochemicals in saffron. Furthermore, the therapeutic effect of saffron against different nervous system disorders has also been discussed in detail.

Cancer is considered one of the most common causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Many chemopreventive agents have been associated with antiproliferative and apoptotic effects on cancer cells because of their high antioxidant activity. The current study was aimed to evaluate the anti-tumor, antioxidant and anti-inflammatory effects of Saffron aqueous extract and its active components against Ehrlich Ascites tumor (EAC). A total of 120 female mice were randomly divided into eight groups. The antitumor effect was assessed by evaluating tumor volume, tumor cell count , survival time and increase in life span of EAC bearing mice. The effect of Crocus Sativus .L ( saffron ) aqueous extract , Crocin and Safranal on different parameters (liver enzymes , kidney function , cardiac markers and antioxidant parameters). These results indicated that Saffron , Crocin and Safranal is a promising protective agents against EAC cells. . Crocus Sativus L ( saffron ) aqueous extract (100mg/kg), Crocin(10 mg/kg) and Safranal(1/10 LD50) (0.188 ml/kg) showed significantly decreased (p < 0.0001) in the volume of the EAC and in the count of EAC cells and increase the life span of EAC bearing mice. Also, showed significantly increased in antioxidant levels, decreased the lipid peroxidation( oxidative stress) as compared to positive control group . We found that The treatment of Crocus Sativus . L ( saffron ) aqueous extract , Crocin and Safranal significantly reduced the liver enzymes, cardiac markers and reduced elevated levels of Urea, Uric acid and Creatinine in positive control as compared with negative control and also increase the level of albumin as compared with positive control group . our data was confirmed by histopathological examination.

In the present research the electronic tongue system was proposed consisted of an array of 4 voltammetric sensors to discriminate saffron samples based on the safranal concentration. Different samples were provided by blending saffron samples with distilled water and pure safranal with ethanol. The provided signals by the electronic tongue system were analyzed using the PCA and ANN methods. The total variance among safranal concentrations by PCA method were 90% and 100% in pure safranal and saffron samples, respectively. Also, it was revealed that the electronic tongue could provide good prediction for safranal concentration in saffron as 98.81% accuracy by means of optimized ANN model. Results showed that there are some relationships between HPLC and electronic tongue signals to determine safranal concentration levels in different saffron samples.

LLKL, a new traditional Chinese medicine formula containing Edgeworthia gardneri (Wall.) Meisn., Sibiraea angustata and Crocus sativus L. (saffron), was designed to ameliorate type 2 diabetes mellitus. Despite the therapeutic benefits of LLKL, its underlying mechanisms remain elusive. This study evaluated the LLKL anti‐diabetic efficacy and its effect on gut microbiota to elucidate its mechanism of action in Zucker diabetic fatty rats. We found that administration of different LLKL concentrations (4.68, 2.34 and 1.17 g/kg/d) improved several diabetic parameters after a 6‐week treatment. Moreover, LLKL modulated gut microbiota dysbiosis, increased the expression of occluding and maintained intestinal epithelial homeostasis, leading to a reduction in LPS, TNF‐α and IL‐6 levels. Hepatic transcriptomic analysis showed that the Toll‐like receptor signalling pathway was markedly enriched by LLKL treatment. RT‐qPCR results validated that LLKL treatment decreased the expressions of TLR4, MyD88 and CTSK. Furthermore, a gene set enrichment analysis indicated that LLKL enhanced the insulin signalling pathway and inhibited glycerolipid metabolism and fatty acid metabolism, which were verified by the liver biochemical analysis. These findings demonstrate that LLKL ameliorates hyperglycaemia, modulates the gut microbiota and regulates the gut‐liver axis, which might contribute to its anti‐diabetic effect.