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Introduction: A promising way to stimulate physical activity is to promote the choice for active modes of transport (walking and cycling). Over the past years, several interventions and policies have been implemented to stimulate this mode shift. However, information concerning the effectiveness of these interventions and policies is still limited. The aim of the present study was to systematically review the effectiveness of interventions designed to stimulate a shift from car use to cycling or walking and to obtain insight into the intervention tools that have been used to promote and/or implement these interventions. Methods: Five databases were searched and articles published in English, Dutch, German, Danish, Norwegian and Swedish were included. Only studies that focussed on a mode shift from car use towards active transport in a general adult population, which were published in peer reviewed journals and which investigated effectiveness were included. Intervention tools used were categorized by using the model of Hoogerwerf & Herweijer, as either legal, economic (subsidy, reward system, penalty), communicative (written materials, behavioural tools) and physical tools (providing bicycles, providing better bicycle facilities at work, adjustment of the environment). Results: Nineteen studies met our inclusion criteria. Studies included described work-place-based interventions, architectural and urbanistic adjustments, population-wide interventions, and bicycle-renting systems. Nearly all studies (except three) showed positive effects concerning a mode shift. Most of the included studies used more than one intervention tool and the tools used differed between types of interventions. However, information about the statistical significance of these results was often lacking and the study methodologies used were not of high quality. Conclusion: Nearly all studies showed results in a positive direction. However, the quality of the included studies was mostly low and intervention characteristics were poorly described.

Background Stimulating active transport by encouraging replacement of short-distance car trips by active transport modes such as cycling or walking has become a popular policy strategy. It has been suggested that neighbourhoods, designed to facilitate healthy behaviour, can influence a person׳s behavioural choices such as transport choice. In the present study, we investigated the association between perceived accessibility of facilities and transport choice for three different trip purposes (shopping, going to public natural spaces, and going to sports facilities) in the Netherlands. Methods An online questionnaire (N=3663) was used to collect data concerning transport choice for the general Dutch population over a period of one calendar year starting July 2012. Logistic regression analyses were used to model the odds of cycling versus car use and to model the odds of walking versus car use. Results When perceived accessibility by car is high, persons were less likely to use active transport modes (OR range: 0.09–0.66) and when perceived accessibility by active transport modes is high, persons were more likely to use the bicycle (OR range: 2.18–10.43) or walk (OR range: 2.97–11.22). Conclusions Our results showed a strong association between perceived accessibility and transport choice even after adjusting for personal and environmental characteristics. Our results suggest that perceived accessibility should be taken into account when stimulating a shift from car use to cycling or walking. The AVENUE project is commissioned and financed by the Dutch National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM, grant number S/260256/01/AV) as part of the strategic research program.

Environmental effects of traffic like noise are typically external and typically unpriced. This makes monetisation of these effects difficult. Much work has been spent the last few years on developing methods for monetising these (external) environmental effects. However, the application of these methods does fall short. This paper describes a cost-benefit analysis of a number of (possible) noise abatement measures in the Netherlands. Benefits are calculated according to consumer's preferences for dwellings, and values applied are derived from two different methodologies (hedonic pricing and contingent valuation). Costs are shown to be surpassed by benefits. Some weaknesses are also demonstrated in valuing noise, particularly where issues of equity, benefit transfer and embedding are concerned. Further research on these issues is recommended.