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This article draws from the concept of Shadow State to analyse the effects of tourism development in a Shadow State environment using the Okavango Delta (OD) in Botswana as a case study. The relationship between Shadow State and tourism enclaves and the resultant effects of tourism development in the OD is examined based on a qualitative approach. Results indicate the following: the creation of Shadow State in tourism development in Botswana has resulted in the creation of a tourism enclave emerging in the OD, especially core areas of the wetland; the tourism enclave is evidenced by the dominance of the tourism industry by multinational companies and investors; association of some of the multinational companies to local political and business elites; and, the increased corruption and a monopoly of tourism development by a few companies. This article therefore argues that tourism development in destination areas like the OD should aim at achieving the ideals of sustainable tourism where the industry should be more inclusive and beneficial to all stakeholders especially residents. The failure to eliminate signs of a Shadow State related to tourism development in the OD would render the ideals of sustainable tourism, which form part of the country's sustainable development agenda, fruitless. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Botswana is a key tourism destination in Southern Africa mainly because of the rich wildlife resources and scenic beauty it sustains. Since the 1990s, the growth of wildlife-based tourism in Botswana has stimulated the development of a variety of tourism infrastructure and facilities. This paper asks if these qualify as sustainable tourism. Using both primary and secondary data sources, the study reveals that foreign-owned safari companies and investors dominate Botswana’s tourism industry, leading to the repatriation of tourism revenue, domination of management positions by expatriates and lower salaries for citizen workers. Tourism also fails to significantly contribute to rural development in Botswana due to its weak linkages with the domestic economy. Promoting more inclusive and beneficial policies and strategies would allow tourism to become more sustainable, making a significant contribution to local development, and allowing citizens to finally see real benefits from an industry which is sustained by their local environment. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Thirty years ago, conservationists, host communities, academics, and tourism practitioners perceived ecotourism as a panacea to conservation and poverty problems in tourism destination areas, especially in developing countries. This paper, therefore, analyses the performance of ecotourism as a tool designed to achieve improved livelihoods and conservation in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. The concept of ecotourism is debated and the context used in this paper is explained. Secondary data from published and unpublished sources on ecotourism in Botswana and the Okavango Delta are used. Primary data were collected through informal interviews with key stakeholders to update secondary data. Results indicate that in its 30 years of existence in the Okavango Delta, ecotourism had mixed results. That is, it succeeded in some areas and failed in others. Where ecotourism succeeded, it generated economic benefits such as income and employment opportunities, leading to positive attitudes of residents towards ecotourism and conservation. Where ecotourism failed, the lack of entrepreneurship, and managerial and marketing skills of local communities are cited as some of the key factors contributing to the failure of projects. Despite the failure of particular projects, this paper argues that ecotourism has proved to be a tool that can be used to achieve improved livelihoods and conservation. However, this depends on the socio-economic and political dynamics of host communities in a specific ecotourism destination area. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This article uses the community-based tourism (CBT) and the rural development approach to analyze community expectations from a CBT project at Lekhubu Island by the Mmatshumu Village, Botswana. This is a qualitative study that utilizes secondary data sources, focus group discussions, in-depth and key informant interviews, and informal interviews as well as observations. Results suggest a considerable degree of positivity among members of the community in terms of deriving economic benefits such as employment and infrastrucrural development. While this is desirable and expected for a CBT project, there is need to inform the communities about trade-offs that they may have to contend with when the project and related tourist activities evolve and expand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper traces the development of tourism certification in Botswana and examines prospects and challenges of successful implementation. A precertification study was conducted that led to the resulting Botswana Ecotourism Certification System (BECS), the main document guiding the implementation of tourism certification ill the country. The BECS comprises of seven principles and over 240 performance standards; a Best Practices Manual provided detailed criteria to assist in developing the standards. The system uses a three-tiered structure designed to incorporate various tourism operations and levels of sustainability practices. The extensive groundwork done prior to implementation indicated that tourism certification in Botswana has the potential to facilitate sustainable tourism and ecotourism practices, especially in nature-based tourism areas like the Okavango and Chobe regions. The current implementation emphasis is on the accommodations sector, to be expanded in future-26 tourism companies in the precertification programme went on to register for certification since the BECS programme was launched in January 2010. However, early learnings indicate that limited policies and infrastructure inhibit the provision of necessary sustainability oriented services from other supporting sectors. For instance, municipal waste recycling centers and national policies that promote the use of energy saving devices in destination areas are lacking, but are important to certification outcomes. Despite these challenges, the BECS is comprehensive in vision and scope (it addresses both quality and sustainability), and has the hallmarks of a globally outstanding certification system. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) program in Botswana aims at achieving conservation and rural development. In the Okavango Delta, some communities are involved in tourism through CBNRM to improve their livelihoods. However, research has not adequately analyzed changes caused by CBNRM on traditional livelihood activities and lifestyles. This study, therefore, uses modernization theory to analyze changes on traditional livelihood activities and lifestyles caused by CBNRM at Sankoyo, Mababe and Khwai villages in the Okavango Delta. Using primary and secondary data sources, results indicate that CBNRM is causing a decline in traditional livelihood activities like subsistence hunting, gathering, crop and livestock farming. As a result, a modern cash economy has emerged. New livelihood activities done by communities include: employment in CBNRM projects, the sale of crafts to tourists and thatching grass to tourism lodges. Income derived from CBNRM affords households to build modern houses, buy foreign foods and household equipment like: four-burner gas stoves, kitchen utensils, and satellite televisions. Conversely, this causes a decline in the consumption of traditional foods and the use of huts and household utensils. CBNRM is thus a modernization tool since it is causing a transformation of traditional livelihood activities and lifestyles. However, even though changes in livelihood activities and lifestyles may be an indication of the dynamism of culture in study villages, sudden change and modernization may increase livelihood insecurity. As such, tourism planning should ensure that modernization is sensitive to traditional economic systems and the need for rural livelihood sustainability. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This article summarizes 10 years of ethnographic research in the Okavango Delta and describes how local communities are collaborating with government, tour operators, and conservationists to manage wildlife through the Community-Based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) program. CBNRM channels social and economic benefits to communities in exchange for their participation in wildlife conservation. Benefits include secured access to land, institutional support, employment, and share of profits from wildlife tourism. By some accounts, CBNRM has effectively achieved co-management and wildlife conservation; by others, the program has achieved only rhetorical success. We highlight collaboration between social actors at various levels-community, government, tourism industry, international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)-as one indicator of success. We then consider the steps that need to be followed to ensure that collaboration leads to long-term conservation. Experiences from this case may provide insights for co-management and conservation in other places where the fate of biodiversity and local livelihoods are entwined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper reviews how state policy and regulatory instruments, including protected area alienations and concessions, have altered or denied the access to land and natural livelihood resources of the indigenous Basarwa and minority subsistence-oriented communities in the Okavango Delta (OD) in Botswana. Drawing on field research and guided by a sustainable rural livelihoods framework, the paper provides an overview of key institutional interventions – in particular the setting up of the Moremi Game Reserve, Wildlife Conservation Policy, Tourism Policy, Agricultural Development Policy and the erection of veterinary fences – that have served to privilege a foreign-owned and dominated commercialized wildlife and nature tourism sector and the export-oriented beef industry in the OD. The officially sanctioned barriers to customary and usufructory rights and access, and the non-recognition of historically embedded traditional land uses have decimated already marginalized resource-based subsistence livelihoods, and precipitated intergroup conflicts over preferential rights and access to resources and opportunities, notably wildlife, non-timber veld products, agriculture and community-based tourism schemes. Such outcomes, moreover, will have consequences for the longer-term sustainability of the OD both as a socioeconomic resource base and as a natural ecosystem. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this paper is to assess the problems and prospects of sustainable tourism development in developing countries with special reference to the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Using both secondary and primary data sources, this paper points out that tourism in developing countries does not always adhere to the principles of sustainable tourism development. In the Okavango Delta, the tourism industry is designed to meet the interests of tourists from developed countries and is dominated by foreign safari companies. The tourism industry in the Okavango Delta does not significantly take into consideration the sociocultural, economic and environmental needs of the host economy. It is characterised by: the marginalisation of local companies and investors; leakages and repatriation of tourism revenue from Botswana to developed countries; the failure of tourism to promote rural development and poverty alleviation; and, the failure to observe local environmental regulations to conserve the Okavango Delta as a natural ecosystem. This paper argues that, despite these problems, such destinations have the potential to contribute to sustainable tourism development. This requires a planning process that satisfies the needs of tourists and tour operators while being sensitive to the sociocultural, economic and environmental needs of host countries and destinations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper draws on the dependency paradigm to explain the development of enclave tourism and its socio-economic impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Using both primary and secondary data source, the study indicates that international tourists, foreign safari companies and investors dominate the tourism industry in the Okavango Delta. The foreign domination and ownership of tourism facilities has led to the repatriation of tourism revenue, domination of management positions by expatriates, lower salaries for citizen workers, and a general failure by tourism to significantly contribute to rural poverty alleviation in the Okavango region. Tourism as a result has a minimal economic impact on rural development mainly because it has weak linkages with the domestic economy, particularly agriculture. Because of its nature, tourism in the Okavango Delta cannot be described as being sustainable from a socio-economic perspective. In order to address problems of enclave tourism development and promote more inclusive and beneficial tourism development in the Okavango, there is need to adopt policies and strategies that will ensure that substantial amounts of tourism revenue are retained in the Okavango and Botswana. These strategies should also ensure that tourism development in the Okavango Delta has strong linkages with the rest of the economy in Botswana. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The objective of this article is to assess the socio-cultural impacts of tourism development in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. This paper largely relied on the research work and reports by the author in the Okavango Delta from 1998 to 2004. In all instances, both primary and secondary data sources were used. However, much of the paper is based on the results of a survey carried out between April 2001 and July 2002. Findings indicate that tourism development in the Okavango Delta has both positive and negative soclo-cultural impacts. Some of the positive socio-cultural impacts include income generation and employment opportunities from both community-based tourism projects and safari companies, infrastructure development such as airport and airstrips, tarred roads, hotels, lodges and camps, the improvement of social services such as banking, health, telecommunications and access to electricity. The negative socio-cultural impacts include enclave tourism, racism, relocation of traditional communities, breaking up of the traditional family structure, increase in crime, prostitution, the adoption of the Western safari style of dressing and a traditionally unacceptable `vulgar' language by young people. This article argues that tourism needs to be sensitive to local cultural nonns and beliefs for it to be accepted by local people and promote sustainable development. This is possible if all the stakeholders (government, operators and local people) collaborate in policy formulation, implementation and monitoring. This can minimise the negative cultural impacts and instead promote the positive. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper uses the concept of sustainable rural livelihoods and income diversification to assess the role that basket making as a cultural tourism activity can play in improving rural livelihoods in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Using both primary and secondary data sources, this paper points out that shocks and natural causes such as drought, disease and changing flood levels in the Okavango River, particularly the drying of the Thaoge (one of the distributaries of the Okavango), have contributed to a decline in livestock and crop yields and increased poverty levels in the region. Therefore, alternative livelihood options that can diversify rural incomes from agricultural production need to be identified. This paper argues that basket making has the potential to diversify rural incomes and improve livelihoods in the Okavango. Baskets are a cultural tourism product that can raise income earning and employment opportunities for rural residents in the Okavango. For this to be successful, basket making will need to be developed as part of cultural tourism. A sustainable cultural tourism sector where baskets are key products requires the sustainable use of natural resources used for basket making. These resources are at present overharvested and are threatened with depletion. There is also a need to promote the empowerment of basket weavers particularly in entrepreneurship and managerial skills in the tourism business, attract young and educated people and promote the preservation of traditional basket making skills, which are important in the development of cultural tourism. Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The Okavango Delta is one of Botswana''s leading tourist destination areas, mainly because of the rich wildlife resources it sustains and its scenic beauty. Tourism has stimulated the development of a variety of allied infrastructure and facilities, such as hotels, lodges and camps, airport and airstrips, in the Okavango region. Through its backward linkages, wholesale and retail businesses have also been established, especially in Maun, to offer various goods to the tourist industry. Tarred roads and other communication facilities have also been developed in Ngamiland District partly to facilitate tourism development. Tourism in the Okavango Delta also provides employment opportunities to local communities and it is a significant source of foreign exchange for Botswana. Despite its positive socio-economic impacts, the industry is beginning to have negative environmental impacts in the area such as the destruction of the area''s ecology through driving outside the prescribed trails, noise pollution and poor waste management. This, therefore, suggests that tourism in the Okavango Delta has socio-economic and environmental impacts, issues which are addressed by this paper based on the concept of sustainability. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]