Search

Light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana, is a quarantine pest in most countries and has established in California and, therefore, has potential to affect export of fresh products from infested areas. There is currently lack of effective treatment especially against eggs. Nitric oxide is a recently discovered fumigant for postharvest pest control and is evaluated in laboratory fumigations to determine its efficacy against different life stages of this pest. Small scale fumigations with nitric oxide at 1.0%, 2.0%, 3.0%, and 5.0% concentrations were conducted under ultralow oxygen conditions at 2?C against larvae, pupae, and eggs of light brown apple moth. Treatment times ranged from 4 to 24 h depending on nitric oxide concentration and life stage. Complete control of larvae and pupae was achieved in 8 h fumigation with 2.0% NO. Eggs were successfully controlled in 6, 12, and 24 h fumigations with 5.0%, 3.0%, and 2.0% NO respectively. The study demonstrated that nitric oxide fumigation was effective against all life stages of light brown apple moth and, therefore, has potential to be an alternative treatment to methyl bromide fumigation for postharvest control of light brown apple moth.

Light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) is regarded as the key insect pest in Australian vineyards and it is also an important pest of apples and citrus. E. postvitt...

Generalist predators such as spiders may help mitigate the spread and impact of exotic herbivores. The lack of prey specificity and long generation times of spiders may allow them to persist when pests are scarce, and to limit the growth of pest populations before they reach damaging levels. We examined whether resident spiders are likely to play a role in maintaining populations of the invasive light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), below outbreak levels in California. We surveyed the spider community on two E. postvittana host plants, the ornamental Australian tea tree, Leptospermum laevigatum, and the weed French broom, Genista monspessulana, to characterize spider and larval E. postvittana abundance and spider species composition throughout the year. Spider densities and species composition showed slight seasonal changes. Spiders were present during periods of high and low E. postvittana abundance. Anyphaenid hunting spiders, Anyphaena aperta Banks in Australian tea tree and Anyphaena pacifica Banks in French broom, dominated spider species composition at four of five sampled sites, and underwent only slight seasonal variation in abundance. Adult A. aperta were rare at all times of the year, suggesting that high mortality among juvenile A. aperta limits the potential of this species as a predator of E. postvittana. Nevertheless, the continued presence of spiders throughout the year indicates that the resident spider community is likely to play a key role in reducing E. postvittana populations in California.

Insects use sensory cues to select plants for feeding and oviposition. For a better offspring survival and life-history performance, the oviposition-site selection by gravid females usually corresponds with plant suitability for the best offspring development. To test this, we used the three-component interacting system involving Botrytis cinerea, a pathogenic fungus on Vitis vinifera, and the plant-feeding Epiphyas postvittana. We hypothesised that the gravid females of E. postvittana discriminate between B. cinerea-infected and uninfected leaves of V. vinifera for oviposition to maximise their offspring performance. We characterised volatiles from B. cinerea-infected and uninfected leaves of V. vinifera. We tested the effect of volatiles from B. cinerea-infected leaves on the olfactory behaviour of E. postvittana using a wind-tunnel assay. We raised the neonate larvae of E. postvittana on B. cinerea-infected and uninfected leaves to characterise their development and life-history performance. The key vo...

Background and Aims In the context of life-history performance, better fitness is evident in insect populations when they correlate positively with the nutritional quality of their host-plants. We determined the chemical differences in the leaves of five cultivars of Vitis vinifera in relation to feeding by Epiphyas postvittana and evaluated larval and adult reproductive performance on the selected cultivars. Methods and Results We determined total nitrogen, carbohydrates, phenolic substances and potassium, iron, sodium and zinc in V. vinifera cv. Chardonnay, Sauvignon Blanc, Merlot, Semillon and Marsanne. The life-history performance of E. postvittana was evaluated by raising it from eggs on leaves of the cultivars. Nitrogen content of Chardonnay was significantly greater than that of the other cultivars. Different cultivars of V. vinifera influenced growth parameters such as larval-developmental time and female-pupal mass. Reproductive-performance, measured as fecundity and fertility rates and adult-male longevity, varied when reared on leaves of the cultivars of V. vinifera. Conclusion Leaves of Chardonnay have the highest nitrogen concentration and enhanced larval performance of E. postvittana. A fitness-index study shows that female-reproductive performance was significantly enhanced when reared on Chardonnay, whereas it declined when reared on Marsanne. Significance of the Study Differences among cultivars of V. vinifera in terms of leaf chemistry are critical for larval performance and adult-reproductive potential. The poor response of E. postvittana on Marsanne could be useful in integrated pest management via push—pull strategy by planting Marsanne either near or among the susceptible cultivars of V. vinifera.

Dolichogenidea tasmanica (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) is the most commonly collected parasitoid of light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae; LBAM) in Australia. We studied the functional response of D. tasmanica, and the effect of recent experience on this behavior. The functional response was evaluated in wind tunnels and enclosed cages. In both arenas, D. tasmanica exhibited a sigmoid functional response, but there was no clear tendency for a deceleration in the functional response curve at high host densities as would be expected with a typical type III functional response. Another experiment revealed that recent experience with high host densities increases the proportion of hosts parasitized by D. tasmanica, which explains much of the difference between the observed functional response curve and a typical type III curve. In general the searching behavior of D. tasmanica varies in response to host density in a manner that directly affects its searching rate. Our results have contributed to understanding the behavior of this parasitoid and indicate its capacity to control its host under laboratory conditions. At lower host densities that are characteristic of field populations, D. tasmanica responded in a density-dependent manner that should contribute to suppression of pest populations before they reach economically damaging levels.

Irradiation is used to provide sterile insects from mass-rearing facilities, but irradiation can degrade insect quality. A system is described that uses repeatable pheromone stimuli to activate male moths housed with clean airflow in a commercially available insect activity meter, for potential use in quality assessment of mass-reared moths in sterile insect programs. We tested sexually mature wild and sterile light brown apple moth (LBAM), Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), males at the commencement of scotophase in a simple assay for increased mate-seeking activity after a 2 s stimulus with a 4-component synthetic pheromone source for 2 s, after a 5 s baseline of activity. Male activity at the upwind end of the glass tube was assessed by infrared beam. Next, we tested if a temperature shock at 30 °C in the pupal stage for various durations (0, 1, 2 or 4 h) would have an effect on male moth response to the sex pheromone. The results indicated similar baseline activity in c...

The Australian light brown apple moth (LBAM) (Epiphyas postvittana) (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) is a pest in Australia, New Zealand and now California (USA). The use of sterile insects in combination with mating disruption and biological insecticides has the potential to eradicate outbreaks in urban areas. The sexual competitiveness of irradiated insects is an important component of the effectiveness of the sterile insect technique (SIT), but standard techniques to measure the sexual competitiveness have been developed only for irradiated tephritid fruit flies. In particular, field cage trials have been used to measure the compatibility and competitiveness of irradiated fruit flies in comparison with wild fruit flies. Trials were carried out to determine if such tests could be adapted for a moth species. Parameters of quality or competitiveness evaluated were the proportion of the moths that mated, relative sterility index, index of sexual isolation, and mating competitiveness based on the egg hatch in the various crosses. Results showed that with the release of sterile moths of both sexes (bisex) there was little difference in competitiveness—expressed as the Relative Sterility Index (RSI)—between moths irradiated at 200, 250 and 300 Gy (irradiated either in the pupal or adult stages), but if a Fried competitiveness test was used to generate competitive C values then greater competitiveness was found at the lower doses of irradiation, but this difference was not statistically significant. Modified test procedures were developed in which the moths in field cages—after having had sufficient opportunity to mate—were egged individually and dissected to determine the presence of 1 or more spermatophores; then egg sterility and spermatophore presence were used to determine the mating type, e.g., wild female × irradiated laboratory male, etc. Results indicated that sterile-male-only releases have the potential to increase mating competitiveness of the released irradiated moths, but this conclusion requires additional experiments for confirmation.

While biological invasions are increasing, in some cases exotic species exhibit an initial phase of population growth and spread, followed by a subsequent phase of natural decline. The light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), provides a unique opportunity to examine potential mechanisms for the natural suppression of an exotic insect species that has become established in coastal California. We recently discovered a microsporidian pathogen, Nosema fumiferanae postvittana, from E. postvittana in its novel range. In the laboratory, we examined the pathogenicity and latent period of this microsporidium, and in the field we determined its prevalence and intensity in five locations using quantitative real-time PCR (qPCR). In the laboratory, when comparing healthy larvae to larvae infected with up to 10(5) spores, we found a reduction in juvenile survivorship (from 100% to 26%), a prolongation of juvenile development time (of up to 9-10 days), a reduction in viable lifetime fecundity (from 788 to 1) and a reduction in the intrinsic rate of increase (from 0.18 to 0.008). The median lethal dose (LD50) was estimated to be 1.8 × 10(4) spores, and the mean latent period for infections with 10(3) spores was 12.67 days. Our field sampling revealed that E. postvittana populations have further declined from previously reported densities in San Francisco and Santa Cruz. We detected N. fumiferanae postvittana in all five locations with an overall prevalence of 5%, which did not appear to be influenced consistently by either host density or season. Mean microsporidian intensity in field-infected individuals was 226 spores. Although the laboratory results demonstrated the potential for host suppression, the field sampling indicated that the prevalence and intensity of microsporidian infection were too low to account for the continued decline in population densities of E. postvittana in coastal California.

Light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker), eggs were subjected to oxygenated phosphine fumigation treatments under 70% oxygen on cut flowers to determine efficacy and safety. Five cut flower species: roses, lilies, tulips, gerbera daisy, and pompon chrysanthemums, were fumigated in separate groups with 2,500 ppm phosphine for 72 h at 5°C. Egg mortality and postharvest quality of cut flowers were determined after fumigation. Egg mortalities of 99.7-100% were achieved among the cut flower species. The treatment was safe to all cut flowers except gerbera daisy. A 96-h fumigation treatment with 2,200 ppm phosphine of eggs on chrysanthemums cut flowers also did not achieve complete control of light brown apple moth eggs. A simulation of fumigation in hermetically sealed fumigation chambers with gerbera daisy showed significant accumulations of carbon dioxide and ethylene by the end of 72-h sealing. However, oxygenated phosphine fumigations with carbon dioxide and ethylene absorbents did not reduce the injury to gerbera daisy, indicating that it is likely that phosphine may directly cause the injury to gerbera daisy cut flowers. The study demonstrated that oxygenated phosphine fumigation is effective against light brown apple moth eggs. However, it may not be able to achieve the probit9 quarantine level of control and the treatment was safe to most of the cut flower species.

Eradication technologies are needed for urban and suburban situations, but may require different technologies from pest management in agriculture. We investigated mating disruption of a model moth species recently targeted for eradication in Californian cities, by applying dollops of SPLAT releasing a two-component sex pheromone of the light brown apple moth in 2-ha plots in low-density residential Perth, Australia. The pheromone technology was applied manually at ∼1.5 m height to street and garden trees, scrubs, and walls at 500 dollops per hectare of 0.8 g containing ∼80 mg active two-component pheromone. Catches of male moths were similar among all plots before treatment, but in treated areas (six replicates) pheromone trap catches were substantially reduced for up to 29 wk posttreatment, compared with untreated control plot catches (three replicates). The treatment with pheromone reduced catch to virgin females by 86% (P

In this paper we tested the behavior of gravid Epiphyas postvittana in select- ing the most-appropriate site for oviposition thus benefitting offspring performance. Our hypothesis was built on Jaenike's preference-performance hypothesis (also referred to as the "mother-knows-the-best" hypothesis). To test this, we used the interacting Epiphyas postvittana, its host Vitis vinifera, and the pathogenic microbe Botrytis cinerea system. Populations of E. postvittana and B. cinerea often exist concurrently on V. vinifera in Aus- tralasia and their interaction and mutual influence are currently being explored, although the suggestion presently is that the relationship between E. postvittana and B. cinerea is mutualistic. We tested the effect of volatiles from B. cinerea-infected berries and unin- fected (control) berries of V. vinifera on the oviposition behavior of E. postvittana .W e also characterized the effects of B. cinerea infection on the berries of V. vinifera on the growth and development of E. postvittana. Contrary to the preference-performance hy- pothesis, oviposition choices made by gravid E. postvittana did not result in the best offspring survival, development, and performance. The preference for oviposition by E.postvittanawasstrongly influenced bythe olfactory and tactile cues.Shelaid fewereggs on B. cinerea-infected berries compared to uninfected berries of V. vinifera. The larvae of E. postvittana showed no preference to uninfected berries of V. vinifera .T he larvae fed on B. cinerea-infected berries of V. vinifera showing greater survival rate, shorter time to pupation, greater pupal mass, and on becoming adults they laid more numbers of eggs than the larvae that were enabled to feed on uninfected berries. The larvae of E. postvittana transport the conidia of B. cinerea and transmit grey-mould disease to uninfected berries of V. vinifera.

Successful parasitism of a host partly depends on a female's assessment of its quality, including whether the host has already been parasitised or not. We conducted experiments to elucidate host discrimination by Dolichogenidea tasmanica (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). It is the most commonly collected parasitoid of light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae). To assess the rate of superparasitism avoidance by D. tasmanica, female wasps were given choices between (1) unparasitised hosts versus freshly self-parasitised hosts, (2) unparasitised hosts versus hosts at 24 h post-self-parasitisation and (3) freshly self-parasitised hosts versus hosts freshly parasitised by a conspecific female. Results confirm that host discrimination occurs in D. tasmanica. Females avoid laying eggs in hosts that have been parasitised by themselves or conspecifics, even though the frequency of first encounter with either an unparasitised or a parasitised host was the same for all choices. Thus, it appear...

Epiphyas postvittana (Walker, 1863), or light brown apple moth (LBAM), is a highly polyphagous native Australian species and a major insect pest in Australian vineyards. Dolichogenidea tasmanica (Cameron, 1912) is the most abundant parasitoid of the larval stages of LBAM. The prime objective of our study was to determine the parasitism success of D. tasmanica on different larval stages of E. postvittana. Additionally, we aimed to find out if larval head capsule width could be used to determine the instar number by examining the variability in head capsule size of each instar of LBAM and the effect of rearing temperature on larval head capsule size. To determine which of the first three larval stages of LBAM parasitised is most effectively by D. tasmanica, choice and no-choice tests were conducted in a wind tunnel. Head capsule widths varied with rearing temperature, especially in the final fifth or sixth instar. We showed that the ranges of head capsule widths overlaps between successive instars three through six, which makes it impossible to distinguish these instars of LBAM using head capsule size alone. We showed that first, second and third instars of LBAM are parasitised by D. tasmanica. No-choice and choice tests revealed that there are significant differences in parasitism among the three susceptible instars, with the highest percentage of parasitism found in second instars in no-choice and choice tests (65.1% and 65.8%, respectively) compared with first instars (61.1% and 45.1%) and third instars (27.3% and 37.5%). Wasps developed faster in third instars, but the wasp female's size was not significantly different among the instars attacked. These data confirm that D. tasmanica is capable of parasitising early larval instars, which is important for minimising damage through biological control.

Light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker), is a quarantined pest in most countries. Its establishment in California and potential spread to other parts of the state and beyond make it urgent to develop effective postharvest treatments to control the pest on fresh commodities. Fumigation with cylindered phosphine at low temperature has emerged to be a practical methyl bromide alternative treatment for postharvest pest control on fresh commodities. However, its use to control E. postvittana eggs on sensitive commodities such as lettuce is problematic. E. postvittana eggs are tolerant of phosphine and long phosphine treatment also injures lettuce. In the current study, E. postvittana eggs were subjected to oxygenated phosphine fumigations to develop an effective treatment at a low storage temperature of 2°C. In addition, soda lime as a CO2 absorbent was tested to determine its effects in reducing and preventing injuries to lettuce associated with phosphine fumigations. Three-day fumigation with 1,000 ppm phosphine under 60% O2 achieved 100% mortality of E. postvittana eggs in small-scale laboratory tests. In the presence of the CO2 absorbent, a 3-d large-scale fumigation of lettuce with 1,700 ppm phosphine under 60% O2 resulted in a relative egg mortality of 99.96% without any negative effect on lettuce quality. The 3-d fumigation treatment without the CO2 absorbent, however, resulted in significant injuries to lettuce and consequential quality reductions. The study demonstrated that oxygenated phosphine fumigation has the potential to control E. postvittana eggs and the CO2 absorbent has the potential to prevent injuries and quality reductions of lettuce associated with long-term oxygenated phosphine fumigation.

Herbivorous insects use sensory cues to choose their host plants for feeding and/or oviposition by assessing host quality. Olfactory, contact and visual cues of the host mediate such choices. The right-host choice for oviposition by a lepidopteran is essential for the performance of its progeny. In natural conditions, plants are often and concurrently attacked by both herbivorous insects and pathogenic fungi. In such a three-way relationship, the interaction between the plant and insect is usually influenced by the fungal population, and such an influence can be either mutualistic or antagonistic. In the present study, we tested the three-way relationship using the system, Epiphyas postvittana–Vitis vinifera–Botrytis cinerea. We sought answers to the questions: (1) whether the females of E. postvittana prefer to oviposit on V. vinifera leaves infected by B. cinerea; and (2) whether the larvae of E. postvittana prefer to feed on V. vinifera leaves infected by B. cinerea. We found that the host-seeking gravid females of E. postvittana ‘tested’ the infection status of the host plant using olfactory, visual, and tactile cues; in consequence, they laid significantly fewer eggs on the moderately (30–60%) and intensely (90–100%) infected leaves of V. vinifera. The neonate larvae preferred to feed on mildly (5–10%) and moderately (30–60%) infected leaves, as against the uninfected (control) leaves, and showed no preference for intensely (90–100%) infected leaves. External and internal examination of the larvae established that the larvae fed on B. cinerea-infected leaf because viable conidia of B. cinerea occurred on the body surface and within the gut of the neonate larvae.

The invasive light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), has notreacheddamaginglevelsoncropsinCalifornia(USA),suggestingthatitspopulationsandimpact are limited by generalist natural enemies. In a series of laboratoryexperiments, we examined resident spiders as predators of E. postvittana larvae on two host plants, the ornamental Australian tea tree, Leptospermum laevigatum (Gaertn.) F. Muell (Myrtaceae), and the weed French broom, Genista monspessulana (L.) L.A.S. Johnson (Fabaceae). Of three abundant spider species in Australian tea tree,twohuntingspidersmeasurablyreducedthenumbersofE. postvittanalarvaeandplantdamage, whereas a web-weaving spider had no detectable impact. The adult stage of the dominant hunting spider Anyphaena aperta Banks (Anyphaenidae) consumed E. postvittana larvae, but neither large nor small juveniles had statistically detectable effects on numbers of larvae. However, plant damage was reduced in the presence of large juvenile A. aperta, suggesting that A. aperta may also have nonconsumptive effects on the feeding behavior of E. postvittana larvae. Anyphaena aperta consumed larvae only when larval densities exceeded a low threshold in a functional response experiment, leading to a type III functional response. Adult A. aperta showed no preference for different E. postvittana instars, whereas Cheiracanthium mildei L. Koch (Miturgidae), an abundant hunting spider on French broom, showed a partial preference for late-instar larvae. The generalist feeding habits of the spidersmayhaveprecludedstrongpreypreferences.Resultsshowthathuntingspidersmayhelplimit E. postvittana populations in California, and that they may in turn reduce the impact of E. postvittanaonits hostplants.

In response to the confirmed detection of the light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana, in California, approximately 53,000 pheromone-baited Jackson traps were deployed and more than 246,000 males were caught (February 2007–February 2010). Approximately 46,000 manually entered catch records were corrected for errors and converted into catch per trap per day. As empty trap data (zeros) were not recorded, we added zeros between first and last catch for each trap based on the stated servicing period (~30,000), before analyzing for trends. Residual data error rate was estimated as 1.5 %. San Francisco and Santa Cruz counties had relatively high trap catches immediately upon trap set, and remained the leading population centers, while most other counties showed a more general trend of a slow build-up in catch over time (12 counties). An exponential increase in trap catch was observed in four counties with sufficient data. The pattern of spread indicated natural, as well as anthropogenic-assisted spread rates, with populations appearing well ahead of the invasion front. This jump dispersal is probably due to movement of host plants, unsurprising since eggs of this polyphagous moth are readily laid on foliage. There was evidence of seasonality in spread, probably linked to the phenology of the insect. There was a positive relationship between catch and known host tree preference, suggesting that trap placement in preferred hosts could add sensitivity to future surveys. Recommendations include the improved provision of data acquisition by telecommunications, standardization of data input, more archiving, and frequent analysis of trap catches. The rapid rate of population growth demonstrated in two counties and spread across many others supports the hypothesis of the recent arrival of E. postvittana in California.

We artificially selected for increased freeze tolerance in the invasive light brown apple moth. Our results suggest that, by not accounting for adaptation to cold, current models of potential geographic distributions could underestimate the areas at risk of exposure to this species.

Light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker), eggs were subjected to phosphine fumigations under normal atmospheric and elevated oxygen levels in laboratory-scale chamber experiments to compare their susceptibilities to the two different fumigation methods. In fumigations conducted under atmospheric oxygen at 5 and 10°C, egg survivorship decreased with increase in phosphine concentration but then increased at a concentration of 3,000 ppm; this increase was significant at 10°C. Based on egg survivorship data, phosphine fumigations conducted in a 60% oxygen atmosphere were significantly more effective than those conducted under atmospheric oxygen conditions. Oxygenated phosphine fumigations at 5 and 10°C killed all 1,998 and 2,213 E. postvittana eggs treated, respectively, after 72 h of exposure. These results indicate the great potential of oxygenated phosphine fumigation for the control of E. postvittana eggs.

The sterile insect technique (SIT) potentially provides a socially acceptable approach for insect eradication of new pest incursions. The light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), was discovered in Berkeley (CA, USA) in 2006, leading to an incursion response that included this technology. In this study, we assessed factors affecting mating success from a bisex release of irradiated moths: effects of radiation dose on male multiple mating, male flight competition, female sex pheromone titre and attractiveness of irradiated females to males, and identification of successful mating in vineyards of either irradiated or wild males (identified by isotope analysis of spermatophores from sentinel females). There was a significant negative relationship between male radiation dose and mating frequency. In head-to-head flights of irradiated males against non-irradiated males to a pheromone lure in a wind tunnel, irradiated males reached the lure first only 31% of the time. With increasing radiation dose, the production of the major sex pheromone component in females, (E)-11-tetradecenyl acetate, dropped, from 0.7 ± 0.1 ng per female in non-irradiated females to 0.2 ± 0.07 ng per female when irradiated at 300 Gy. Male catch was reduced to 11% of control females in traps containing females irradiated at 300 Gy. Isotope analysis of spermatophores found in the bursa copulatrix of females indicated that mating success of irradiated males inside the live (entry-only) traps containing virgin females was lower (13.1 ± 3.3%) than suggested by male catch (21.2 ± 3.8%) in pheromone traps, the current standard for assessing field competitiveness. Impacts of irradiation on male and female moth fitness should be taken into account to improve estimates of irradiated to wild male E. postvittana overflooding ratios needed for population suppression.

Methyl bromide (MB) chamber fumigations were evaluated for postharvest control of light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), in fresh fruit destined for export from California. To simulate external feeding, larvae were contained in gas-permeable cages and distributed throughout loads of peaches, plums, nectarines (all Prunus spp.), apples (Malus spp.), raspberries (Rubus spp.), or grapes (Vitis spp.). Varying the applied MB dose and the differential sorption of MB by the loads resulted in a range of exposures, expressed as concentration x time cross products (CTs) that were verified by gas-chromatographic quantification of MB in chamber headspace over the course of each fumigation. CTsor = 60 andor = 72 mg liter(-1) h at 10.0 +/- 0.5 and 15.6 +/- 0.5 degrees C (x +/- s, average +/- SD), respectively, yielded complete mortality of approximately 6,200 larvae at each temperature. These confirmatory fumigations corroborate E. postvittana mortality data for the first time in relation to measured MB exposures and collectively comprise the largest number of larval specimens tested to date. In addition, akinetic model of MB sorption was developed for the quarantine fumigation of fresh fruit based on the measurement of exposures and how they varied across the fumigation trials. The model describes how to manipulate the applied MB dose, the load factor, and the load geometry for different types of packaged fresh fruit so that the resultant exposure is adequate for insect control.

Pediobius ni Peck (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) is a eulophid parasitoid indigenous to North America that was found attacking the invasive light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), in California. We investigated host age suitability, fecundity, and temperature-dependent developmental time for P. ni as a parasitoid of E. postvittana. Parasitoid offspring survival was higher on E. postvittana presented as prepupa or young pupa (3d old), and P. ni would not attack mature E. postvittana larva. Parasitoid developmental time increased with advanced host age. At 24°C, P. ni parasitized 6.8 ± 0.7 hosts, and produced 119.5 ± 16.8 offspring during a 21.5 2± 3.0 d adult lifetime when provided food and host pupae. The developmental rate of P.ni was a positive linear relationship between 15–28°C, but it failed to develop at constant temperatures >29°C. The estimated lower developmental threshold is 13.0°C, and degree-day requirements (DD) are 278 DD. As a comparison of host species suitability, P.ni was tested with obliquebanded leafroller, Choristoneura rosaceana (Harris) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae); navel orangeworm, Amyelois transitella (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae); omnivorous leafroller, Platynota stultana Walsingham (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae); orange tortrix, Argyrotaenia franciscana (Walsingham) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae); and peach twig borer, Anarsia lineatella Zeller (Lepidoptera: Gelechiidae). The parasitoid readily attacked all tested host species; percentage parasitism was lower on A. lineatella than on A. transitella, P. sultana, and C. rosaceana, but similar among the other tested species. Clutch size generally increased with host size, but percentage adult emergence and sex ratio was not affected by host species. Exposure of hosts to multiple P.ni increased the numbers of emerged wasps per parasitized host without obvious costs to offspring fitness.

Light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker), is a newly invasive pest in California. Habrobracon gelechiae Ashmead is an indigenous North American ectoparasitoid of lepidopterans. Using E. postvittana as the host, we determined H. gelechiae host stage preference for oviposition and suitability for larval growth: the parasitoid attacked second to fifth instars, but preferred older (third to fifth) host larvae for oviposition, laying more eggs per clutch on the largest (fifth instar). Offspring survival was better on larger (third to fifth instars) hosts. Adult survival and fecundity and immature temperature development were studied at three key temperatures. At 12°C, H. gelechiae failed to oviposit. At 22 and 30°C, H. gelechiae had, respectively, egg to adult developmental times of 15.4 and 8.7 days, adult female survival of 54.8 and 27.2 days, lifetime parasitism of 39.9 and 21.8 hosts and 181 and 151 eggs per female, an intrinsic rate of increase of 0.107 and 0.165, and mean generation...

Non-crop habitat adjacent to crops may be important for enhancing the activity of natural enemies in crops. However, it is not always clear whether natural enemies that are active in non-crop habitats actually contribute to pest suppression in adjacent crop habitats. We hypothesised that parasitic wasps that utilise the same hosts can be segregated between crop and non-crop habitats in an agro-ecosystem. We tested this hypothesis using the light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), in vineyards and adjacent native vegetation. We experimentally measured the parasitism rate of larval E. postvittana at six and eight sites in both vineyards and the adjacent native vegetation in two consecutive years. Wild larval Tortricidae were also collected at each experimental site to assess their diversity and related parasitoids. Parasitised hosts were then identified using a PCR-based protocol to examine the parasitoids’ host ranges. The parasitoid Therophilus unimaculatus (Turner) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) was most active in non-crop native vegetation, whereas Dolichogenidea tasmanica (Cameron) (Hymenoptera: Braconidae) parasitised the most larvae in vineyards. Parasitism of E. postvittana by D. tasmanica was higher on grape than on plantain, which indicates that host plants influence activities in different habitat. Both species shared the same range of tortricid hosts. Overall, our results indicate the two key parasitoids that attack E. postvittana differ in their pattern of habitat use. The native vegetation adjacent to crops may not enhance the activity of some natural enemies for pest control in an agricultural ecosystem. Refereed/Peer-reviewed

Anthocyanins have diverse roles in plant reproduction and in response to both abiotic and biotic stress. By over-expressing the apple MYB transcription factor, MYB10, we have generated apple trees, Malus × domestica Borkh. (Rosaceae), with highly pigmented red foliage due to the presence of high concentrations of cyanidin-based anthocyanins. In this study, we investigated the impact of the high anthocyanic apple leaves on the behaviour, feeding, and life cycle parameters of the light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), a widespread herbivorous pest of apples. Behaviour of 1- to 3-day-old larvae towards red anthocyanin-rich and green apple leaves was studied in choice and no-choice trials, and survival, growth, and development of larvae feeding on red and green apple leaves from the neonate to pupation were compared. First-instar E. postvittana showed a statistically significant preference for green over red leaves from three transgenic red apple lines and a preference for the less red old leaves over the bright red new leaves. This was significantly different from their behaviour towards wild type green leaves, where new leaves were selected over old. In complete darkness, first-instar E. postvittana showed no significant preference for the green leaves, indicating that visual cues were important. Although larval survival was not greatly affected by feeding on the red foliage, larval growth and development were significantly affected by feeding on leaves from some of the transgenic red apple lines. Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of leaf phenolics showed that both anthocyanins and quercetin glycosides were significantly raised in the red transgenic lines compared with wild types.

The aim of the research was to identify alternatives to chlorpyrifos for the control of light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana , on nursery and ornamental plants. Viburnum tinus L., a commonly grown nursery plant, were infested with E. postvittana eggs , sprayed to run-off and mortality recorded. Several treatments were identified as equally efficacious as the standard chlorpyrifos spray (500 μg/l). The insecticides that compared most favorably with chlorpyrifos were λ-cyhalothrin and γ-cyhalothrin. Four horticultural mineral oils demonstrated good ovicidal properties when evaluated alone versus when combined with reduced rates of the above insecticides or spinosad, imidacloprid or thiacloprid. The response of some insecticide and horticultural mineral oil combinations varied, suggesting that the oil selected may be important. Chlorpyrifos, λ-cyhalothrin, γ-cyhalothrin and spinosad provided similarly high levels of residual control of neonates for up to 10 d from application. Mixtures of UltraPure, an n C21 horticultural mineral oil, with reduced rates of the above insecticides maintained residual efficacy. Alternative treatments evaluated in this study may provide a high level of E. postvittana control through egg mortality and residual effects on emerging neonates over the hatching period. Field trials are required to verify the potential of these alternatives for commercial application.

A new four-component sex pheromone blend for light brown apple moth (Epiphyas postvittana) was examined for efficacy of communication disruption in laboratory and field trials. Vineyard trials using SPLAT LBAM™ examined disruption of traps in the presence of: a) the current two-component ((E)-11-tetradecenyl acetate and (E,E)-9,11-tetradecadienyl acetate, 95:5), b) a new four-component blend ((E)-11-tetradecenyl acetate and (E,E)-9,11-tetradecadienyl acetate plus (E)-11-tetradecen-1-ol and (E)-11-hexadecenyl acetate (10:0.5:0.1:0.05)), c) higher ratio of the two new compounds (10:0.5:10:10), d) four compounds with an antagonist ((Z)-11-tetradecenyl acetate) added, e) three compounds with antagonist minus the most expensive component ((E,E)-9,11-tetradecadienyl acetate), compared to f) untreated controls. In the laboratory, 69.0% of untreated pairs mated, and communication was suppressed by both attractive blends (41.1% communication (P = 0.024, two-component blend), and 18.4% communication (P = 0.003, four-component blend)). In vineyards, totals of 24,776 and 41,053 male moths were caught in the two trials, respectively, to delta traps baited with four-component lures and virgin females. Communication disruption was achieved at a higher level with a four-component blend for 13/14 weeks in disruption trial one and for 10/10 weeks in disruption trial two, compared with the two-component blend. Disruption was on average improved by 12% with the four-component blend compared to the two-component blend (P = 0.091). Other blends were less effective at communication disruption. The best formulation released from SPLAT™ was only weakly attractive compared to rubber septa, so false trail following to point sources was unlikely to be as important as other mechanisms.

Light brown apple moth [Epiphyas postvittana (Walker)] is now established as an economic and quarantine pest in California, and new technologies are being investigated to increase options for its management. Two new organic formulations for mating disruption, SPLAT LBAM HD-O and organic Hercon Biotie (biodegradable) were field tested at four point source densities (25, 72, 322, and 500/ha) and compared with the standard Isomate LBAM Plus (500/ha, as a positive control) and an untreated (negative) control. Assessment involved trapping using synthetic lures and virgin females. In total, 175,776 male light brown apple moths were caught to both the caged females and synthetic lures, from 10 February to 19 May 2011. The light brown apple moth catch dramatically decreased from baseline measurements after the treatments were applied, with the highest density treatments reducing catch to below 10% of the catch in the untreated controls within the first week (> 90% disruption). In synthetic lure traps, the SPLAT and Biotie treatment performed similarly well over all rates (P = 0.317 for posttreatment percentage communication disruption), but SPLAT performed better at disrupting virgin female traps (P = 0.045). There was a significant increase in disruption with an increasing number of points/ha (P 0.74). Disruption of this species in vineyards is thus highly feasible.

Light brown apple moth Epiphyas postvittana is a significant horticultural pest native to Australia that currently has a limited global distribution. However, this pest can tolerate very heterogeneous climates and has a wide host range. It has recently established in California with considerable consequences for US international and domestic trade. It has resulted in increasing calls for targeted risk assessment so that appropriate quarantine measures can be put in place to prevent its entry into new regions and further spread. Potential global distribution has been predicted by comparing the climatic conditions of its native (Australia) and long-established (New Zealand) ranges to the rest of the world using CLIMEX. It was suggested that E. postvittana has potential to establish mainly in countries in Central and South America, southern Africa, Western Europe and Southeast Asia. The study provides basic information for further assessment of the establishment capacity of this species in new habitats, and adds to the knowledge required to make science-based decisions in biosecurity.

The radiation biology of two geographically isolated populations of the light brown apple moth [Epiphyas postvittana (Walker)] was studied in Australia and New Zealand as an initiation of a SIT/F1 sterility program. Pharate andor = 2 d pre-emergence pupae were exposed to increasing radiation doses up to a maximum dose of 300 Gy. Fertility and other life history parameters were measured in emerging adults (parental) and their progeny (F1-F3 adults). Parental fecundity was significantly affected by increasing irradiation dose in pharate pupae only. For both populations, parental egg fertility declined with increasing radiation. This was most pronounced for the irradiated parental females whose fertility declined at a higher rate than of irradiated males. At 250 Gy, femalesor = 2 d preemergence pupae produced few larvae and no adults at F1. No larvae hatched from 250 Gy-irradiated female pharate pupae. At 300 Gy, males still had residual fertility of 2-5.5%, with pharate pupae being the more radio-sensitive. Radiation-induced deleterious inherited effects in offspring from irradiated males were expressed as increased developmental time in F1 larvae, a reduction in percent F1 female survival, decreased adult emergence and increased cumulative mortality over subsequent generations. Males irradiated ator = 150 Gy produced few but highly sterile offspring at F1 and mortality was99% by F2 egg.

The light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), is a highly successful biological invader. It was accidentally introduced to several countries including New Zealand, Hawaii, England, and California. Light brown apple moth attacks a wide range of crop plants and other woody and herbaceous plants, but a more comprehensive analysis of its host range is needed for risk assessments, to evaluate the likely economic and environmental impacts, and to enable targeting of particular plant species for detection surveys and treatments. We reviewed and synthesized the host range and host selection behavior of light brown apple moth by using information from Australia and invaded countries. The host range of light brown apple moth is determined by the behavior of both adult females and larvae. Females use visual, chemical and physical cues to choose host plants. Larvae are capable of limited active dispersal by walking and longer range dispersal by ballooning on silken strands; therefore, larvae also may need to select host plants. We review larval performance indicators across a range of plants. Based on our review, there are at least 545 plant species in 363 genera from 121 families that have been reported as hosts of light brown apple moth. Some plants were reported only once and need verification. Nevertheless, many host plant species and their wide phylogenetic range (from ferns to higher dicotyledons) indicates that light brown apple moth is one of the most polyphagous insects known. This information and our categorization of frequency of host use are valuable for incursion response and pest management activities.

Light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), is the target of the sterile insect technique, but reduced moth fitness from irradiation lowers the effective overflooding ratio of sterile to wild moths. New measures of insect quality are being sought to improve field performance of irradiated insects, thus improving the cost effectiveness of this technique. Male pupae were irradiated at intervals between 0 and 300 Gy, and adult flight success was assessed in a wind tunnel equipped with flight track recording software. A dose response was evident with reduced successful search behaviors at higher irradiation doses. Irradiation at 250 Gy reduced arrival success to 49% of untreated controls, during 2-min assays. Mark-release-recapture of males irradiated at 250 Gy indicated reduced male moth recapture in hedgerows (75% of control values of 7.22% +/- 1.20 [SEM] males recaptured) and in vineyards (78% of control values 10.5% +/- 1.66% [SEM] recaptured). Males dispersed similar distances in both habitats, and overflooding ratios dropped off rapidly from the release point in both landscapes. Transects of traps with central releases proved to be an efficient method for measuring the quality of released males. Relative field performance of moths was greater than suggested by wind tunnel performance, which could be due to time differences between the two assays, two-minute wind tunnel tests compared with days in the field treatments. Release strategies involving ground releases should consider the effect of limited postrelease dispersal. Aerial release could solve this problem and warrants investigation.

The light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), is a horticultural pest of Australia and New Zealand that has more recently invaded Hawaii, Europe, and California. A 2,216-bp region of the mitochondrial genome containing the cytochrome oxidase I and II genes was sequenced from 752 individuals. Haplotype network analyses revealed a major split between a predominantly Western Australian clade and all other samples, suggestive of either a deep genetic divergence or a cryptic species. Nucleotide and haplotype diversity were highest in the country of origin, Australia, and in New Zealand populations, with evidence of haplotype sharing between New Zealand and Tasmania. Nucleotide and haplotype diversity were higher in California than within the British Isles or Hawaii. From the total of 96 haplotypes, seven were found in California, of which four were private. Within California, there have been at least two introductions; based on genetic diversity we were unable to assign a likely source for a single moth found and eradicated in Los Angeles in 2007; however, our data suggest it is unlikely that Hawaii and the British Isles are sources of the major E. postvittana population found throughout the rest of the state since 2006.

The adult light brown apple moth Epiphyas postvittana Walker (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), gorse seed weevil Apion ulicis Forster, (Coleoptera: Apionidae), gorse pod moth Cydia ulicetana Denis and Schiffermuller (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) and gorse thrips Sericothrips staphylinus Haliday (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) were assessed for their ability to carry and deposit the conidia of a plant pathogenic fungus Fusarium tumidum Sherb. on agar plates in laboratory experiments. Epiphyas postvittana, the largest insect species studied, carried and deposited the highest number of F. tumidum conidia. The number of colony forming units recovered from all insect species after exposing them to F. tumidum sporulating cultures for 24 h, declined with time. In subsequent transmission experiments using only E. postvittana, each insect was loaded with 5,000 conidia of F. tumidum and caged together with potted healthy gorse (Ulex europaeus L.) at eight insects per plant. The insects deposited 310 conidia per plant on average b...

The aim of the research was to identify efficacious and less environmentally harmful treatments than the standard chlorpyrifos sprays used for the control light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), eggs on nursery stock. A series of dip experiments showed a range of responses when comparing the efficacy of insecticides on egg hatch of E. postvittana. The insecticides that compared most favorably with chlorpyrifos were lamda-cyhalothrin and gamma-cyhalothrin, and thiacloprid. Indoxacarb, novaluron, and spinosad caused significant mortality only when combined with All Seasons mineral oil. All Seasons, showed ovicidal properties when evaluated alone and demonstrated adjuvant properties when combined with the above-mentioned insecticides, except gamma-cyhalothrin and thiacloprid. Several other horticultural mineral oils performed similarly, except the efficacy of spinosad varied with the oil product used, suggesting that the oil type selected is important for some insecticide and oil combinations. Several insecticides evaluated in this study are likely candidates for further work to develop treatments against E. postvittana eggs on nursery plants. Mineral oils are ovicidal and combinations with insecticides are likely to be advantageous.

The light brown apple moth (LBAM), Epiphyas postvittana (Walker), is a polyphagous species that is an important pest of apple, citrus, and grapes in Australia and New Zealand. The potential threat of LBAM to U.S. agriculture was recognized formally in 1957 when this species was included in the pest alert series "Insects Not Known to Occur in the United States" of the Cooperative Economic Insect Report. Although LBAM was excluded from a list of the top 100 most dangerous exotic pests of concern to the United States in 1973, most regulatory entomologists have continued to cite this species in risk assessments. LBAM was first discovered in the United States at Berkeley, CA, in 2006. Pheromone trapping efforts in 2007–2009 by the California Department of Food and Agriculture and the U.S. Department of Agriculture revealed its presence in Alameda, Contra Costa, Los Angeles, Marin, Monterey, Napa, San Benito, San Francisco, San Joaquin, San Luis Obispo, San Mateo, Santa Barbara, Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, Solano, Sonoma, Ventura, and Yolo counties, California. Previous surveys in California over the past 40 years, for LBAM in particular and for Lepidoptera in general, covering a variety of habitats including most of the known geographical range of LBAM, failed to detect this species. These negative data provide circumstantial evidence that LBAM arrived in California only recently. We provide descriptions and illustrations to help identify this newly arrived pest, along with a history of its discovery.

Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), the light brown apple moth (LBAM), is an important leafroller pest with an exceptionally wide host range that includes many horticultural crops and other woody and herbaceous plants. LBAM is native to southeastern Australia but has invaded Western Australia, New Zealand, Hawaii, much of England, and in 2007, it was confirmed as established in California. The discovery of this pest in California has led to a major detection and regulatory effort because of concerns about economic and environmental impacts. Its recent discovery in Sweden is also of note. LBAM has often been intercepted on imports of fruit and other plant parts, and it has the potential to become a successful invader in temperate and subtropical regions worldwide. The importance of the insect has prompted development of classical biological control programs together with a wide variety of other management interventions that can be used in integrated pest management or integrated pest eradication.

Fungi and bacteria on the external surfaces of four gorse-associated insect species: gorse seed weevil Apion ulicis Forster (Coleoptera: Apionidae), light brown apple moth Epiphyas postvittana Walker (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), gorse pod moth Cydia ulicetana Denis and Schiffermuller (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) and gorse thrips Sericothrips staphylinus Haliday (Thysanoptera: Thripidae), were recov- ered by washing and plating techniques. The isolates were identified by morphology and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) restriction fragment length polymorphism and sequencing of internally tran- scribed spacer (ITS) and 16S rDNA. A culture-independent technique (direct PCR) was also used to assess fungal diversity by direct amplification of ITS sequences from the washings of the insects. All insect species carried Alternaria, Cladosporium, Corallomycetella, Penicillium, Phoma, Pseudozyma spp. and entomopathogens. Ninety-four per cent of the 178 cloned amplicons had ITS sequence similarity to Nectria mauritiicola (syn. Corallomycetella repens) .E. postvittana carried the largest fungal spores (spore mean surface area of 126 mm 2 ) and the most fungal colony forming units per insect. Methylo- bacterium aquaticum and Pseudomonas lutea were isolated from all four insect species. P. fluorescens was the most abundant bacterium on the lepidopteran insects. This study presents the diversity of microbial taxa on insect exoskeletons, and provides the basis for developing a novel mycoherbicide delivery strategy for biological control of gorse using insects as vectors of a plant pathogen.

Light brown apple moth is an exotic pest that was confirmed in California in March 2007. It is a tortricid leaf-roller moth native to Australia, which has a broad range of plant hosts with the capacity to cause damage across a wide array of crops, natural areas and ornamental plants. California and federal agencies have issued quarantine orders affecting production and retail nurseries, and potentially fruit and vegetable exports. It is found thus far primarily in nurseries near urban areas. Eradication efforts are under way to prevent its spread into California crop areas and throughout the United States.

We recently discovered infections by a microsporidium closely related to Nosema fumiferanae in field populations of the light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), in the San Francisco region of California. E. postvittana originates from Australia and was first detected in California in 2006; therefore, our aim was to identify and determine the origin of the Nosema isolate. We characterized the pathogenicity, transmission pathways, and ultrastructure of this new Nosema isolate. In addition, we sequenced fragments of commonly used genetic markers (ITS, SSU, and RPB1), and examined the phylogenetic relationships between the Nosema isolate and other microsporidian species commonly found in lepidopteran hosts. The pathogenicity of the Nosema isolate was investigated by infecting second instar larvae of E. postvittana. Larval and pupal survivorship were reduced by 7% and 13% respectively, and pupation occurred 1-2d later in infected individuals than in healthy individuals. Emerging infected females died 5d earlier than healthy females, and daily fecundity was 22% lower. Hatch rate also was 22% lower for eggs oviposited by infected females. Vertical transmission was confirmed; spores were present in 68% of egg masses and 100% of the surviving larvae from infected females. Ultrastructure images, together with sequences from selected genetic markers, confirmed the Nosema isolate to be a member of the Nosema fumiferanae species complex (Nosema fumiferanae postvittana subsp. n.). The association of this pathogen with E. postvittana contributes further to the biotic resistance that E. postvittana has experienced since its introduction to California.

Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (light-brown apple moth) is a polyphagous herbivore of economic significance, which also feeds on Vitis vinifera L. The E. postvittana-V. vinifera interacting system also involves the participation of the fungus Botrytis cinerea Persoon ex Fries. We have been exploring the relationship among E. postvittana-V. vinifera-B. cinerea over the past two years. In this article, we report the preference and performance of the larvae of E. postvittana raised solely on a synthetic diet incorporated with the mycelial material of B. cinerea (Diet B). To characterize the effect of fungus on the development of E. postvittana, another synthetic diet was prepared that included the lyophilized leaf material of V. vinifera (Diet C). When raised on Diets B and C, a decrease in the duration of larval development and an increase in the survival and fecundity rate of E. postvittana occurred. Diet B influenced the pupal mass, but a significant increase occurred when the larvae were fed on Diet C. The larval emergence rate was the greatest in E. postvittana raised on Diet B, followed by those on Diet C. The F(2) generation of the larvae reared on Diet B showed similar effects as F(1) on the life-history performance of the larvae. Diet B enhanced the life-history performance of E. postvittana, although the larvae of E. postvittana showed little preference to Diet B. The greater fertility rate of E. postvittana reared on Diet B suggests the importance of sterols as shown in Lobesia botrana (Denis & Schiffermuller) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) and in a few Myrmicinae (Hymenoptera: Formicidae), which serve as precursors to different ecdysteroids that regulate many critical processes through embryonic development.

Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) is a serious pest of a number of horticultural crops including grapes in Australia and New Zealand. This study brings together information on the parasitoid complex associated with E. postvittana that previously was fragmented and largely inaccessible. We include species reared during a 3-year study of the parasitoids of E. postvittana in the vineyards of the Coonawarra region, South Australia, material from several Australian agricultural insect collections and records from the literature. An illustrated key is presented for 25 species of parasitoids and hyperparasitoids associated with E. postvittana, along with information on the taxonomy, identification, distribution and biology of each species. Taxa newly recorded from this host are Perilampus sp. (Perilampidae), and six species of Ichneumonidae: Euceros sp., Labium sp., Netelia sp., Plectochorus sp., Temalucha minuta (Morley) and Eriborus epiphyas sp. n., the latter species being described in full.

Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt)-resistant light brown apple moth, Epiphyas postvittana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae), created by selection of a laboratory colony with artificial diets containing the Bt endotoxin Cry1Ac, were used to explore relationships between larval behavior and resistance to toxins. Our hypothesis was that behavioral responses during the first days of exposure to diet are directly related to the toxicity of the diet, as measured by subsequent mortality. We tested two predictions from this hypothesis. The first prediction was that susceptible larvae and resistant larvae exhibit similar behavior on diet without toxins, settling at feeding sites within a few hours. The second prediction was that susceptible and resistant larvae differ in their behavior on Cry1Ac diet to the same degree that their mortality differs, i.e., on Cry1Ac diet, resistant larvae exhibit anorexia and walking to a lesser degree than susceptible larvae. Predictions were tested by making observations over 2 wk, with each larva held individually in a 10-cm-long cylindrical glass arena with two aliquots of diet. The two aliquots consisted of either the same diet (two no-choice treatments: control/control or Cry 1Ac/Cry1Ac) or different diets (one choice treatment: control/Cry 1Ac). The two predictions did not accurately describe larval behavior. On control diet, behavior differed, with resistant larvae settling more quickly than susceptible larvae. On Cry1Ac diet, behavior was more similar than expected. Thus, even though the Bt diet was much less toxic to resistant larvae, resistant larvae seemed to match the ability of susceptible larvae to reduce exposure to Bt diet while increasing exposure to nontoxic control diet.