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This review focuses on dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs) which are mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and originating from the neural crest. These cells possess a high capacity for self-renewal and multilineage differentiation. Because of these traits, they represent promising sources for tissue engineering, regenerative medicine, and clinical applications. The objective of this study was to assess the extrinsic and intrinsic factors influencing DPSC characteristics and their potential in tissue engineering. This review discusses the external and internal factors affecting DPSC properties, including proliferation, migration, differentiation, and gene expression post extraction. Additionally, it explores the impact of the microenvironment-its composition and physical properties-and genetic and epigenetic regulation on DPSC behavior. Variations in the microenvironment and genetic regulation play pivotal roles in modulating DPSC functions, including their proliferation and differentiation potential. Intrinsic and extrinsic factors are key barriers to realizing the full therapeutic potential of DPSCs. A deeper understanding of the extrinsic and intrinsic factors affecting DPSC behavior is critical for optimizing their use in regenerative medicine, particularly for dental and craniofacial applications. Although DPSCs hold significant promise, challenges remain, and this review provides insights into the current limitations and future directions for DPSC-based therapies. Researchers and clinicians are offered a comprehensive resource for advancing the field., Competing Interests: Declarations. Competing interests: The authors declare no competing interests., (© 2025. The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature B.V.)

Magnesium (Mg) plays an important role in controlling bone apatite structure and density and is a potential bioactive material in repairing critical-sized bone defects. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the effect of adding NanoMgO to polycaprolactone/beta-tricalcium phosphate (PCL/β-TCP) scaffolds on bone regeneration. Novel 3D-printed porous PCL/β-TCP composite scaffolds containing 10% nanoMgO were fabricated by fused deposition modeling (FDM) and compared with PCL/β-TCP (1:1) scaffolds (control). The morphology and physicochemical properties of the scaffolds were characterized by ATR-FTIR, XRD, scanning electron microscope-energy dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM-EDX), transmission-electron-microscopy (TEM), water contact angle, and compressive strength tests and correlated to its cytocompatibility and osteogenic capacity in-vitro. To evaluate in-vivo osteogenic capacity, bone-marrow-derived stem cell (BMSC)-loaded scaffolds were implanted into 8 mm rat critical-sized calvarial defects for 12 weeks. The hydrophilic scaffolds showed 50% porosity (pore size = 504 μm). MgO nanoparticles (91.5 ± 27.6 nm) were homogenously dispersed and did not adversely affect BMSCs' viability and differentiation. Magnesium significantly increased elastic modulus, pH, and degradation. New bone formation (NBF) in Micro-CT was 30.16 ± 0.31% and 23.56 ± 1.76% in PCL/β-TCP/nanoMgO scaffolds with and without BMSCs respectively, and 19.38 ± 2.15% and 15.75 ± 2.24% in PCL/β-TCP scaffolds with and without BMSCs respectively. Angiogenesis was least remarkable in PCL/β-TCP compared with other groups (p < .05). Our results suggest that the PCL/β-TCP/nanoMgO scaffold is a more suitable bone substitute compared to PCL/β-TCP in critical-sized calvarial defects., (© 2022 Wiley Periodicals LLC.)