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Habitat restoration is an integral feature of wildlife conservation. However, funding and opportunities for habitat restoration are limited, and therefore, it is useful for targeted restoration to provide positive outcomes for non‐target species. Here, we investigate the possibility of habitat creation and management benefitting two threatened wetland specialists: the Green and Golden Bell Frog (Litoria aurea) and the Large‐footed Myotis (Myotis macropus). This study involved two components: (i) assessing co‐occurrence patterns of these species in a wetland complex created for the Green and Golden Bell Frog (n = 9) using counts, and (ii) comparing foraging activity of Large‐footed Myotis in wetlands with low and high aquatic vegetation (n = 6 and 7, respectively) using echolocation metres. Since Large‐footed Myotis possesses a unique foraging behaviour of trawling for aquatic prey, we hypothesised that foraging activity of this species would be higher in wetlands with low aquatic vegetation coverage. Additionally, we provide observations of its potential prey items. We identified one created wetland where both species were found in relatively high numbers, and this wetland had a permanent hydrology, was free of the introduced fish Gambusia (Gambusia holbrooki) and had low aquatic vegetation coverage. We also found that Myotis feeding activity was significantly higher in low aquatic vegetation coverage wetlands (x = 65.72 ± 27.56 SE) compared to high (x = 0.33 ± 0.33 SE, P = 0.0000). Although this is a preliminary study, it seems likely that Green and Golden Bell Frog and Large‐footed Myotis would gain mutual benefit from wetlands that are constructed to be permanent, that are Gambusia free, low in aquatic vegetation coverage, and are located in close to suitable roosting habitat for Large‐footed Myotis. We encourage adaptive aquatic vegetation removal for Green and Golden Bell frog as this may have benefits for Large‐footed Myotis. The evidence suggests that the former may be a suitable umbrella species for the latter.

Environmental DNA (eDNA) metabarcoding is revolutionising biodiversity monitoring, but has unrealised potential for ecological hypothesis generation and testing. Here, we validate this potential in a large-scale analysis of vertebrate community data generated by eDNA metabarcoding of 532 UK ponds. We test biotic associations between the threatened great crested newt (Triturus cristatus) and other vertebrates as well as abiotic factors influencing T. cristatus detection at the pondscape. Furthermore, we test the status of T. cristatus as an umbrella species for pond conservation by assessing whether vertebrate species richness is greater in ponds with T. cristatus and higher T. cristatus Habitat Suitability Index (HSI) scores. T. cristatus detection was positively correlated with amphibian and waterfowl species richness. Specifically, T. cristatus was positively associated with smooth newt (Lissotriton vulgaris), common coot (Fulica atra), and common moorhen (Gallinula chloropus), but negatively associated with common toad (Bufo bufo). T. cristatus detection did not significantly decrease as fish species richness increased, but negative associations with common carp (Cyprinus carpio), three-spined stickleback (Gasterosteus aculeatus) and ninespine stickleback (Pungitius pungitius) were identified. T. cristatus detection was negatively correlated with mammal species richness, and T. cristatus was negatively associated with grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis). T. cristatus detection was negatively correlated with larger pond area, presence of inflow, and higher percentage of shading, but positively correlated with HSI score, supporting its application to T. cristatus survey. Vertebrate species richness was significantly higher in T. cristatus ponds and broadly increased as T. cristatus HSI scores increased. We reaffirm reported associations (e.g. T. cristatus preference for smaller ponds) but also provide novel insights, including a negative effect of pond inflow on T. cristatus. Our findings demonstrate the prospects of eDNA metabarcoding for ecological hypothesis generation and testing at landscape scale, and dramatic enhancement of freshwater conservation, management, monitoring and research.

Earth is currently facing a species extinction crisis as humans increasingly destroy, degrade, and fragment natural landscapes. While extinction is a global issue, Australia has one of the highest rates among all countries. This decline of the nation’s biota is driven by many complex and interacting threatening processes, including invasive species, disease, adverse fire regimes, climate change, overexploitation, changed water regimes, pollution, degradation, fragmentation, and habitat loss. Despite decades of conservation research, high economic wealth, relatively good governance, and world-class scientific expertise, many Australian species continue to deteriorate. The central aim of this thesis is to address key questions relevant to prioritizing and planning for Australian threatened species’ persistence and long-term recovery.It is widely known that human pressures, such as habitat loss and fragmentation, are major drivers of species extirpation, yet there has been no quantification of species-specific extirpation since European colonization in Australia. Until we truly understand the extent of species extirpation, our efforts to recover them will be constrained. In Chapter 2, I quantify species-specific extirpation, habitat loss, and fragmentation since 1750 and illuminate the scale in which this has occurred over 250 years. Using remotely sensed data, historical field guides, ecological data, and expert elicitation, I found that since 1750, ~100 million hectares of habitat for threatened taxa have been converted and at least one taxa (but many more in large parts of the nation) have disappeared from over 530 million hectares (69%) of Australia. This extirpation is a result of many complex threatening processes, such as habitat loss, fragmentation, invasive predators, and/or altered fire regimes.Considering the significant historical extirpation of species, the inauguration of Australia’s flagship environmental legislation, the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 (EPBC), intended to prevent further losses and safeguard threatened species. In Chapter 3, I analyze the effectiveness of this key environmental policy, and find that over 7.7 million ha of potential terrestrial threatened species’ habitat were cleared in the period between 2000 – 2017. Of this clearing, over 93% was not referred to by the Federal Government for assessment, meaning the loss was not scrutinized under the EPBC Act. My research highlights that Australia's flagship environmental legislation is highly ineffective at limiting the ongoing loss of potential habitat.In addition to legislative policy, the Federal Government has introduced prioritization plans to help curb the species extinction crisis. In 2015, the Federal Government prioritized 73 umbrella species, as part of a wider effort to protect and recover all plants and animals at risk of extinction. In Chapter 4, I analyze the efficiency of this plan by developing a problem-based method for prioritizing conservation actions for umbrella species. This method maximizes the total number of flora and fauna benefiting from management. My results show that the Federal Government priority list benefits only 6% of Australia’s listed threatened terrestrial species. This could be increased to benefit nearly half (46%) of all threatened terrestrial species for the same budget, if more suitable umbrella species were chosen.Australia’s species now face new and exacerbated threats, particularly those associated with climate change including cyclones, flooding, and altered fire regimes. Due to anthropogenic climate change, fires are predicted to become larger, more frequent, more intense, and occur outside of the traditional fire season. In Chapter 5, I explore the impact of the 2019–2020 megafires on Australian fauna habitat, finding that these fires burned ~97,000 km2 of vegetation across southern and eastern Australia, which is considered habitat for 832 species of native vertebrate fauna. Seventy taxa had a substantial proportion (>30%) of habitat impacted; 21 of these were already listed as threatened with extinction. If extinction risk assessments find that the 49 currently unlisted species meet EPBC Act criteria, the number of threatened Australian terrestrial and freshwater vertebrate fauna would increase by 14%.Given the uniqueness of the 2019–2020 bushfire disaster, governments, conservation scientists and managers had no precedent for designing and implementing an efficient and effective conservation response. Chapter 6 fills this knowledge gap by providing a decision support framework that prioritizes conservation actions needed immediately after a megafire. The framework can be split into two approaches that are targeted to different stakeholders. The first approach focuses on identifying areas that can cost-effectively recover the most species in any one location, whilst the second approach selects complementary locations to extend actions across all impacted species’ habitats. Using the 2019–2020 Australian megafires as a case study, I show that 290 threatened species are likely to have been severely impacted and require immediate conservation action. Our framework identified 179 subregions – found mostly in south-east Australia –as key locations to extend actions across all species’ habitats. This framework can be utilized to prioritize conservation actions that will best mitigate impacts in other locations affected by megafire events.This thesis combines remote sensing technology with economic instruments and systematic conservation planning to quantify biodiversity threats, status, and trends; explore the effectiveness of environmental legislation in mitigating threats; develop novel, problem-based methods for cost-effectively prioritizing conservation actions; evaluate bushfire impact, and develop emergency-response frameworks for bushfire recovery. In doing so, the thesis answers key questions relevant to prioritizing and planning for Australian threatened species’ persistence and long-term recovery.

Since passage of the Endangered Species Act in 1973, over 1300 endangered and threatened species have been protected in the USA and its territories. Most species continue to face a significant risk of extinction, but the status of many species is improving. Here we present analyses of federal agency reports to the United States Congress (1988–2002) that describe differences in species status and show which variables are correlated with improving or declining status. We found that 52% of species showed repeated improvements or were not declining over this time. Species status improves over time, with only 35% still declining 13 years or more after protection. Taxonomy, funding by US Fish and Wildlife Service and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, and agency assessment of risk of extinction and potential to recover were significantly correlated with status.

Conservation efforts often focus on umbrella species whose distributions overlap with many other flora and fauna. However, because biodiversity is affected by different threats that are spatially variable, focusing only on the geographic range overlap of species may not be sufficient in allocating the necessary actions needed to efficiently abate threats. We developed a problem‐based method for prioritizing conservation actions for umbrella species that maximizes the total number of flora and fauna benefiting from management while considering threats, actions, and costs. We tested our new method by assessing the performance of the Australian federal government's umbrella prioritization list, which identifies 73 umbrella species as priorities for conservation attention. Our results show that the federal government priority list benefits only 6% of all Australia's threatened terrestrial species. This could be increased to benefit nearly half (or 46%) of all threatened terrestrial species for the same budget of AU$550 million/year if more suitable umbrella species were chosen. This results in a 7‐fold increase in management efficiency. We believe nations around the world can markedly improve the selection of prioritized umbrella species for conservation action with this transparent, quantitative, and objective prioritization approach., Article impact statement: Considering spatially overlapping species, threats, actions, and costs in conservation prioritization yields 7‐fold increase in efficiency.

Flagship species have been used widely as umbrella species (i.e., species with large home range whose protection often provides protection for sympatric species) in the management of China's nature reserves. This conflation of flagship and umbrella species is best represented by the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) and other large, endangered mammals designated as conservation targets in site selection and planning of reserves. Few empirical studies have tested the effectiveness of flagship species as surrogates for a broader range of sympatric species. Using extensive camera-trap data, we examined the effectiveness of management zones designated to protect flagship (target) species in conserving sympatric species in 4 wildlife reserves (Gutianshan, Changqing, Laohegou, and Wolong). We tested whether the progression from peripheral to core zones was associated with an increasing habitat association for both target and sympatric species. The distribution patterns of the study species across the zones in each reserve indicated a disparity between management zones and the species' habitat requirements. Management zone was included in the final model for all target species, and most of them had higher occurrence in core zones relative to less-protected zones, but zone was not a predictor for most of the sympatric species. When management zone was associated with the occurrence of sympatric species, threatened species generally had higher detections in core zones, whereas common species had higher detections outside of the core zone. Our results suggested that reserve planning based on flagship species does not adequately protect sympatric species due to their specialized habitat requirements. We recommend re-examining the effectiveness of management zoning and urge a multispecies and reserve-wide monitoring plan to improve protection of China's wildlife.Efectividad del Manejo de Zonación Diseñada para Especies Bandera en la Protección de Especies Simpátricas Resumen Las especies bandera se han utilizado ampliamente como especies paraguas (es decir, especies con una extensa distribución cuya protección frecuentemente proporciona protección para especies simpátricas) en el manejo de las reservas naturales de China. Esta combinación de especie bandera y especie paraguas tiene su mejor representación en el panda gigante (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) y otros grandes mamíferos en peligro de extinción designados como objetivos de conservación en la selección de sitio y la planeación de reservas. Pocos estudios empíricos han probado la efectividad de las especies bandera como sustitutas de una especie simpátrica con una distribución más amplia. Con datos numerosos de cámaras trampa, examinamos la efectividad de las zonas de manejo designadas para proteger a las especies bandera (objetivo) en la conservación de especies simpátricas dentro de cuatro reservas de fauna (Gutianshan, Changqing, Laohegou y Wolong). Probamos si la progresión de las zonas periféricas hacia las zonas núcleo estaba relacionada con asociaciones crecientes de hábitat tanto para las especies objetivo como para las simpátricas. Los patrones de distribución del estudio de especies a lo largo de las zonas en cada reserva indicaron una disparidad entre las zonas de manejo y los requerimientos de hábitat de las especies. La zona de manejo se incluyó dentro del modelo final para todas las especies objetivo y la mayoría de ellas tuvo una presencia más alta en las zonas núcleo en relación con las zonas de menor protección. Cuando la zona de manejo se asoció a la presencia de especies simpátricas, las especies amenazadas generalmente tuvieron un mayor número de detecciones en la zona núcleo, mientras que las especies comunes tuvieron un número más elevado de detecciones fuera de la zona núcleo. Nuestros resultados sugieren que la planeación de reservas basada en las especies bandera no protege adecuadamente a las especies simpátricas debido a sus requerimientos especializados de hábitat. Recomendamos una reexaminación de la efectividad del manejo de zonación y urgimos que se genere un plan de monitoreo multiespecífico en toda la reserva para mejorar la protección de la fauna en China.旗舰物种被广泛地作为伞护物种 (指活动范围广、对其投入的保护措施能够同时有益于其它同域分布物种的物种) 用于中国自然保护区的管理。旗舰种和伞护种概念的混淆最为突出地体现在, 选择以大熊猫为代表的大型濒危兽类作为主要保护对象来确定保护区的选址和规划。很少有实证性的研究来检验伞护种是否能有效代表同域分布物种的保护需求。我们基于大数据量的红外相机调查, 评估了中国4个野生动物保护区 (古田山、长青、老河沟和卧龙) 针对旗舰物种 (即主要保护对象) 划定的管理分区对同域分布物种保护的有效性。我们分析了从保护区实验区向缓冲区、核心区过渡的过程中, 主要保护对象和其它同域分布物种是否均表现出更强的选择性。多个物种在保护区各个分区内的分布格局显示, 管理分区和物种的栖息地需求并不一致。分区是影响主要保护对象分布的因素之一。相比实验区和缓冲区, 多数保护对象更多地出现在核心区。然而, 分区对绝大多数同域分布物种而言, 并不是一个影响其分布的显著因素。对于部分分布受分区影响的同域分布物种而言, 受威胁物种通常偏好核心区内的生境, 而常见种则偏好实验区内的生境。我们的研究结果表明, 旗舰物种通常有特化的栖息地需求, 将它们作为同域分布物种的代表以指导保护区规划, 并不能有效保护其它同域分布物种。我们建议保护区应重新评估管理分区的有效性, 并采用基于多物种的、覆盖保护区全境的监测方案, 以促进对中国野生动物的有效保护。.

This article belongs to the Special Issue Dragon Trees - Tertiary Relicts in Current Reality., Umbrella species are defined as species that can be rare and sensitive to human disturbance, whose protection may confer the protection of other co-occurring species. The dragon’s blood tree Dracaena cinnabari Balf.f. was already considered an umbrella species on Socotra Island (Indic Ocean, Yemen) due to its ecological importance for some native biota. We studied the reptile community living on D. cinnabari from Socotra Island. We sampled reptiles on trees across most D. cinnabari populations and applied co-occurrence and network partition analyses to check if the presence of reptiles on D. cinnabari populations was random or structured. Regardless of its patched and scarce actual distribution, we report the use of this tree as a habitat by more than half of the reptile community (12 endemic reptiles). Co-occurrence and network partition analyses demonstrate that this community is structured across the distribution of dragon’s blood trees, reflecting complex allopatric, vicariant, and biotic interaction processes. Hence, these trees act as micro-hotspots for reptiles, that is, as areas where endemic and rare species that are under threat at the landscape scale co-occur. This Socotra endemic tree is currently threatened by overgrazing, overmaturity, and climate change. Its protection and declaration as an umbrella species are expected to benefit the reptile community and to protect evolutionary processes that are partially driven by the ecological links between reptiles and this tree. To our knowledge, no tree species has been proposed as an umbrella species for island vertebrate endemics so far, highlighting the ecological uniqueness of Socotra Island., This article is an output of Project 13055714, financed by the Mohamed bin Zayed Species Conservation Fund, and Grant CGL2012–36970 from the Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad, Spain (co-funded by FEDER). R.V. was supported by a postdoctoral grant (SFRH/BPD/79913/2011) from the Fundação para a Ciência e Tecnologia (FCT) and national funds under the scope of “Norma transitória” through FCT (DL57/2016/CP1440/CT0002). S.C. was supported by grant PGC2018-098290-B-I00 (MCIU/AEI/FEDER, UE) and grant 2017-SGR-00991 from the Secretaria d’Universitats i Recerca del Departament d’Economia i Coneixement de la Generalitat de Catalunya.

Unabated urbanization has led to environmental degradation and subsequent biodiversity loss across the globe. As an outcome of unmitigated land use, multi-jurisdictional agencies have developed land use plans that attempt to protect threatened or endangered species across selected areas by which some trade-offs between harm to species and additional conservation approaches are allowed among the partnering organizations. Typical conservation plans can be created to focus on single or multiple species, and although they may protect a species or groups of species, they may not account for biodiversity or its protection across the given area. We applied an approach that clustered deductive habitat models for terrestrial vertebrates into metrics that serve as surrogates for biodiversity and relate to ecosystem services. In order to evaluate this process, we collaborated with the partnering agencies who are creating a Multi-Species Habitat Conservation Plan in southern California and compared it to the entire Mojave Desert Ecoregion. We focused on total terrestrial vertebrate species richness and taxon groupings representing amphibians, birds, mammals, and reptiles, and two special status species using the Normalized Index of Biodiversity (NIB). The conservation planning area had a lower NIB and was less species rich than the Mojave Desert Ecoregion, but the Mojave River riparian corridor had a higher NIB and was more species-rich, and while taxon analysis varied across the geographies, this pattern generally held. Additionally, we analyzed desert tortoise (Gopherus agassizii) and desert kit fox (Vulpes macrotis arsipus) as umbrella species and determined that both species are associated with increased NIB and large numbers of species for the conservation area. Our process provided the ability to incorporate value-added surrogate information into a formal land use planning process and used a metric, NIB, which allowed comparison of the various planning areas and geographic units. Although this process has been applied to Apple Valley, CA, and other geographies within the U.S., the approach has practical application for other global biodiversity initiatives.

Species surrogates, the use of particular species to index habitat condition or to represent ecological assemblages are commonly identified in many ecosystems, but are less tested, and therefore less employed in estuaries. Estuaries provide important ecosystem goods (e.g. harvestable species) and services (e.g. carbon processing, coastal armouring), but require protection from multiple human activities, meaning that finding surrogates for estuarine condition or faunal assemblages is a significant knowledge gap. In this study, we test the efficacy of the threatened estuary ray Hemitrygon fluviorum, as a suitable indicator of ecosystem condition and management umbrella surrogate species for conservation prioritisation and monitoring purposes within estuaries. We surveyed fish assemblages and ray presence at ten sites within each of 22 estuaries in southeast Queensland, Australia, using one hour deployments of baited video arrays. We then tested for correlations between ray presence, a series of environmental variables considered important to ecosystem management within estuaries (i.e. testing rays as indicator species), and the co-occurring fish species (i.e. testing rays as umbrella species). Estuary rays function as both umbrella species and ecological indicators of habitat status in subtropical Australian estuaries. As umbrellas, ray occurrence concords with elevated species richness. As ecological indicators, ray distribution concords with habitats of good water quality (especially low turbidity) and more natural vegetation remaining in the catchment. These results highlight the potential for other threatened aquatic vertebrates that are both readily detectable and that are reliable proxies for ecosystems status to be become useful management tools in estuaries. The protection of such large, threatened species in coastal seascapes allows managers to address multiple targets for conservation, especially; (1) protecting species of conservation concern; (2) maintaining diversity; and (3) protecting optimal habitats by better placing reserves.

Assessment of a species' status is a key part of management decision making for endangered and threatened species under the U.S. Endangered Species Act. Predicting the future state of the species is an essential part of species status assessment, and projection models can play an important role in developing predictions. We built a stochastic simulation model that incorporated parametric and environmental uncertainty to predict the probable future status of the Sonoran desert tortoise in the southwestern United States and North Central Mexico. Sonoran desert tortoise was a Candidate species for listing under the Endangered Species Act, and decision makers wanted to use model predictions in their decision making process. The model accounted for future habitat loss and possible effects of climate change induced droughts to predict future population growth rates, abundances, and quasi-extinction probabilities. Our model predicts that the population will likely decline over the next few decades, but there is very low probability of quasi-extinction less than 75 years into the future. Increases in drought frequency and intensity may increase extinction risk for the species. Our model helped decision makers predict and characterize uncertainty about the future status of the species in their listing decision. We incorporated complex ecological processes (e.g., climate change effects on tortoises) in transparent and explicit ways tailored to support decision making processes related to endangered species.

Post-industrial sites, including fly ash deposits, are common landscape components in many Central European regions. Their effective restoration is thus crucial because such habitats have been recognised as critical secondary refuges for many endangered and declining species. Controversially, the overwhelming majority of restoration projects consider vegetation units as the restoration target and thus ignore various habitat resources of many endangered species. Our study details habitat-use of the grayling Hipparchia semele, a European endemic xerothermophilous specialist and one of the most rapidly declining butterflies in Central Europe, inhabiting a fly ash deposit in the Kadaň region, western Czech Republic. We estimated its population to 510 males and 346 females by the capture-mark-recapture method during its whole flight period. By detailed recording of all observed specimens' behaviour, we show that this species uses resources from distinct vegetation units, such as exposed and disturbed spots, ruderal regrowths, solitary trees and shrubs, rocks and artificial concrete structures. Because the studied population can act as a source for the whole region, the grayling's ecological needs should be considered in any restoration project. Oppositely, the originally planned restoration of dry grasslands based on plant species composition of vegetation would very probably threaten one of the last two metapopulations in the whole country. Using the grayling's case, we thus warn against the vegetation-based habitat approach in restoration ecology; the resource-based habitat approach should be prioritised, especially when considering needs of the most threatened and/or umbrella species.

Aim Managing fire is critical for the conservation of biodiversity in many ecosystems globally. To manage fire effectively, it is necessary to identify the temporal and spatial scales at which it affects a diverse range of species. This information is challenging to obtain for rare and threatened species for which data often are sparse, and in systems with long fire-return intervals (e.g. >100 years). We tested the effects of a century of fires on the distribution of 12 threatened bird species across a 100,000 km2 region in which “long-unburnt” vegetation has been identified as important for the diversity of common species. Location Semi-arid mallee woodlands of south-eastern Australia. Methods We developed spatially explicit models to identify the effects of fire history and climatic factors on the distribution of 12 threatened bird species, including two globally endangered species, the Mallee Emu-wren (Stipiturus mallee) and Black-eared Miner (Manorina melanotis). Results Fire was a driver of distribution for all species. Four species were common in younger vegetation ( 60 years post-fire) vegetation. Species’ distributions were further restricted to areas associated with particular vegetation types and climatic conditions. Main conclusions Comprehensive investigation of the response to fire by a range of threatened species highlights the importance of what is now recognized as mid-successional mallee vegetation (20–60 years post-fire), and that species’ preferences for previously identified “long-unburnt” vegetation extend to ≥60 years post-fire. Fire management conducted with incomplete knowledge, or which is focussed on introducing prescribed burns or suppressing fires for early/late-successional species alone, is unlikely to maximize biodiversity. Effective fire management for biodiversity requires the promotion of ecological processes that result in key successional stages at particular locations in the landscape.

Monitoring is an indispensable tool for assessment of the state of species both locally and globally. The monitoring of bryophyte species has started quite recently and there is need for uniform methods that can be applied in different countries to get comparable results to give a basis for more effective species conservation. Here we present three general monitoring methods that are suitable for all European bryophytes. The method of permanent squares is used for long-lived species inhabiting stable communities on the ground or large rocks. The method of counting separated substrate units is used for species inhabiting tree trunks, boulders or large pieces of decaying wood. The method of sampling is used for short-lived species in unstable communities and for species that are difficult to identify with a hand-lens. The selection of species and sites to be monitored is discussed. Assessment of the current conservational state of the species depends on the state of habitats at monitoring plots that are defined through character and rate of threats, and change of population size compared with previous and first monitoring events. The three monitoring methods are illustrated with examples based on Estonian monitoring experiences. Suggestions of monitoring methods for bryophyte species belonging to the EU Habitat Directive are given.

Strategic conservation of imperilled species faces several major challenges including uncertainty in species response to management actions, budgetary constraints that limit options, and the need to scale expected conservation benefits from local to landscape levels and from single to multiple species. A structured decision-making process was applied to address these challenges and identify a cost-effective conservation strategy for the Federally listed endangered and threatened aquatic species in the Upper Tennessee River Basin (UTRB). The UTRB, which encompasses a landscape of ~58 000 km2, primarily in western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, and south-western Virginia, harbours one of the most globally diverse assemblages of freshwater fishes and mussels at temperate latitudes. To develop a strategy for conservation of 12 fish species and 24 mussel species over a 20-year period, a management strategy that would best recover these species was identified given costs and uncertainty in management effectiveness. The main insights came from a trade-off analysis that compared alternative allocations of effort among management actions. A strategy emphasizing population management, which included propagation and translocation, performed best across a wide range of objective weightings and was robust to uncertainty in management effectiveness. Species prioritization was based on the expected conservation benefit from the best performing strategy, degree of imperilment, and species-specific management costs. Sub-basin prioritization was based on expected conservation benefit from the best performing strategy and feasibility of habitat management and threat abatement. Although the strategy was developed for imperilled aquatic species in the UTRB, the structured process is applicable for developing cost-efficient strategies to conserve multiple species across a landscape under uncertain management effectiveness. The process can assist a manager with limited resources to understand which species to work on, where to conduct that work, and what work would be most beneficial for those species in those catchments.

Aim To quantify and compare species coverage in priority areas for conservation identified using species richness as opposed to approaches that use individual species range maps. Location Global. Methods We compare the coverage of species when global priority areas for conservation are identified based on (1) twelve species richness maps of all and small-range amphibians, birds and mammals and all and small-range threatened (i.e., vulnerable, endangered and critically endangered) species; (2) weighted range size rarity, a richness measure corrected for range size; and (3) a complementarity-based analysis including species range maps for 21,075 terrestrial vertebrate species listed by the International Union for the Conservation of Nature. We also assessed whether any combination of small-range and/or threatened species richness could be a suitable surrogate for a complementarity-based analysis by assessing species coverage in priority areas located using (1) richness of small-range species only; (2) richness of all threatened species only; and (3) richness of small-range and threatened species. Results Our results show clear differences in the spatial pattern of priority areas for conservation among the prioritizations based on species richness, weighted range size rarity and species range maps, with the species richness-based priority areas being highly aggregated in the tropics and the species range map priority areas being more evenly spread among the global terrestrial area. We also find that identifying priority areas for conservation using species richness produces a lower coverage of species than priority areas based on complementarity methods and identified using species range maps, where just one species was left without any protection. Main Conclusions As methods and software currently exist for processing large numbers of individual species distribution maps in spatial prioritization, the use of species richness appears to be an unnecessary simplification of biodiversity pattern.

Semi-natural habitats in Europe host a substantial proportion of biodiversity, but they experience biodiversity loss due to ongoing agricultural changes. We regard the Rattle grasshopper (Psophus stridulus) as a charismatic species of species-rich submontane xerothermic grasslands. To enable conservation of the species and its habitat, we studied the habitat preferences of this formerly abundant grasshopper, now threatened and declining in many European countries. In 2011, we applied capture-mark-recapture method to sample adults at four localities (Czech Republic), each divided into two subplots with different management and character of vegetation. In 2012, we carried out a more extensive study on habitat preferences, evaluating 179 grassland patches (24% of them occupied by P. stridulus). For each site, we recorded vegetation characteristics (sward height and density, cover of vegetation components, percentage of bare ground), slope, inclination and agricultural management. We used multistate models in MARK software to analyse survival and movement probabilities between different subplots. Data from the 2012 large-scale study were analysed by fitting several regression models. The results show that the species preferred south-facing slopes with sparse, short vegetation and with patches of bare ground. Sward density was the most important predictor of species presence. For species conservation, we recommend controlling succession on the localities by regular management (grazing or cautious mowing) to maintain optimal habitat with sparse sward. We promote P. stridulus as a flagship and umbrella species of species-rich submontane xerothermic pastures.

The Caatinga biome has been identified as one of the important wilderness areas on earth. However, less than 1% of the region is under strictly legal protection although Seasonally Dry Tropical Forests (SDTFs) are globally highly endangered. There is an urgent need to increase the understanding of diversity pattern and threaten status of Caatinga plant species to preserve the unique biodiversity and protect endangered species. Species distribution modelling (SDM) can support strategic decisions in nature conservation for poorly researched tropical regions. This study provides the first highly representative, spatially explicit overview of plant diversity and threat status for the entire Caatinga, a semi-arid area in Northeast Brazil. For this purpose, we developed (a) a stacked species distribution modelling (S-SDM) approach to predict quantitatively floristic species richness and patterns of threatened plant species and (b) a combined approach of diversity hot spots and hubs of threatened species to derive conservation importance units (CIU) to contribute to improved nature reserve management. We applied the modelling technique MaxEnt to establish predictive distribution models with 22 uncorrelated predictors including climate, topography, solar radiation and soil information at a high spatial resolution of 30 arc-seconds (approx. 1 km). Spatial patterns of species richness and threat status were derived by stacking 1062 plant species and 27 endangered species, respectively. These outputs were compared to two levels of protected areas (Brazilian and international standards) and intensive human land use patterns to define a set of recommendations for conservation management. Our complementary S-SDM approach showed that our predicted CIUs covered an area of 24% across the entire biome, whereas only 7% of the Caatinga is currently protected based on the Brazilian standards. We found that apart from an excellent overlap of 38% between CIUs and the current protected areas, a substantial proportion of CIUs (89%) was predicted outside the existing reserve network. Moreover, our findings enable targeted surveys to be done in order to enhance conservation efforts and ensure the efficient use of available resources in this poorly studied tropical region. Future upcoming local and regional studies could focus on a multi-taxonomic approach including e.g. insects, reptiles or mammals as a holistic perspective towards biodiversity conservation.

The task I am promoting in this paper is to expand the conservation and management focus from just threatened vertebrate species to include all non-threatened vertebrates. I reason that it is easily possible to do so because it lies within our long-standing legal and public interest in our native birds and mammals, and more recently, reptiles and frogs. The shortfall in achieving the aspiration to conserve biodiversity is evident by examining both the Commonwealth and NSW governments' official State of the Environment reports. The rise of threatened species in the conservation agenda, called 'endangered species' in NSW until 1995, is examined from the time the legal interpretation of endangered species became important in 1991with a decision by Justice Paul Stein of the NSW Land and Environment Court. Endangered species had captured both the legal and popular imagination, leading to the passage of the Endangered Fauna (Interim Protection) Act 1991 (NSW). In 1992, 26% of the birds, mammals, frogs and reptiles of NSW became listed as endangered species. The non-threatened species became the neglected 74% of the vertebrate fauna of NSW. In short, this emphasis hinders the conservation of biodiversity in its broadest sense. I argue here that expanding beyond threatened species recovery to studying, managing and conserving all of our native vertebrate fauna is a major step forward in achieving our aim of conserving biodiversity.

Whether management for so-called umbrella species actually benefits co-occurring biota has rarely been tested. Here, we studied consequences for multiple invertebrate taxa of two ground-disturbance treatments designed to support an avian umbrella species (Eurasian stone-curlew, Burhinus oedicnemus), and whether analysing ecological requirements across the regional species pool predicted beneficiaries. Responses were assessed for the abundance of five bird species of conservation concern, and the abundance, species richness and composition of carabids, staphylinids, other beetles (non-carabid, non-staphylinid), true bugs and ants, sampling 31,258 individuals of 402 species in an extensively-replicated experiment across the UK's largest grass-heath. Both treatments provided suitable habitat for the umbrella species, in contrast to controls. Treatment influenced the abundance of only one bird species; but carabid, other beetle and ant richness increased with one or both treatments, whilst staphylinid richness and abundance increased and true bug richness and abundance decreased with both treatments. Richness of ‘priority’ (rare, scarce or threatened) invertebrates a priori considered to share ecological requirements with the umbrella species (predicted beneficiaries) increased with both treatments. Resampling and rarefaction showed landscapes diversified by treatment supported a greater cumulative species richness of other beetles, ants and true bugs, and importantly priority invertebrates, than a landscape comprising only untreated controls. Such experiments provide strong evidence to assess co-benefits of umbrella species management, but are costly and time consuming. The systematic examination of the autoecological requirements of co-occurring taxa (the ‘Biodiversity Audit Approach’) successfully predicted likely beneficiaries. Demonstrating wider biodiversity benefits strengthens the case for avian conservation management.

Background Inland wetlands are crucial for biodiversity conservation, especially in highly-urbanized landscapes. In the European Union, many wetlands are included in the EU ‘Natura 2000’ network, the main tool for biodiversity conservation over the continent, which requires the development of site-specific management plans. Clear and feasible recommendations are necessary to provide site managers with effective tools for the maintenance of biodiversity in these unstable environments. Birds are excellent umbrella species, therefore a management targeted at increasing habitat suitability for focal bird species would likely benefit broader wetland biological communities. Methods During spring–summer 2017, we collected presence/absence data for 10 bird species of conservation interest at a site scale for 21 Natura 2000 sites. We also carried out a point count survey to detect presence/absence of four reedbed-dwelling species at 75 points. At the site level, we estimated landscape characteristics from regional GIS-layers, whereas fine-scaled habitat composition was recorded on the field within a 100 m-buffer around the 75 points. We analysed the effect of the extent of different habitats on species’ occurrence probability by means of multi-species binomial multivariate adaptive regression splines (MARS) at both scales. We also run species-specific MARS models to compare their performance with those of multi-species models. Results At the site scale, the extent of the reedbeds/mires was positively associated with the occurrence of all species of conservation concern. At the point-count scale, reedbed extent positively predicted species’ occurrence, but only in presence of patches of clear shallow water. Species-specific MARS models showed qualitatively similar results for some species, but generally were outperformed by multi-species ones. Conclusions Multi-species MARS models confirmed to be an efficient tool in disclosing species-habitat relationships even for set of species including scarce taxa and when only short-term monitoring data are available. In terms of conservation measures, our findings stress the importance of Phragmites australis reedbed as a key habitat for avian biodiversity, but only when it is flooded and interspersed with scattered patches of open water. The preservation of wide (> 100/150 ha) and flooded reedbeds structured in spots of no less than 2 ha emerges as the main conservation measure for the long-term conservation of the threatened avifauna of inland pre-Alpine wetlands.

A recent global trend toward retirement of farmland presents opportunities to reclaim habitat for threatened and endangered species. We examine habitat restoration opportunities in one of the world’s most converted landscapes, California’s San Joaquin Desert (SJD). Despite the presence of 35 threatened and endangered species, agricultural expansion continues to drive habitat loss in the SJD, even as marginal farmland is retired. Over the next decades a combination of factors, including salinization, climate change, and historical groundwater overdraft, are projected to lead to the retirement of more than 2,000 km2 of farmland in the SJD. To promote strategic habitat protection and restoration, we conducted a quantitative assessment of habitat loss and fragmentation, habitat suitability, climatic niche stability, climate change impacts, habitat protection, and reintroduction opportunities for an umbrella species of the SJD, the endangered blunt-nosed leopard lizard (Gambelia sila). We use our suitability models, in conjunction with modern and historical land use maps, to estimate the historical and modern rate of habitat loss to development. The estimated amount of habitat lost since the species became protected under endangered species law in 1967 is greater than the total amount of habitat currently protected through public ownership and conservation easement. We document climatic niche contraction and associated range contraction away from the more mesic margins of the species’ historical distribution, driven by the anthropogenic introduction of exotic grasses and forbs. The impact of exotic species on G. sila range dynamics appears to be still unfolding. Finally, we use NASA fallowed area maps to identify 610 km2 of fallowed or retired agricultural land with high potential to again serve as habitat. We discuss conservation strategies in light of the potential for habitat restoration and multiple drivers of ongoing and historical habitat loss.

Grassland insect diversity is a key concern, but its conservation is aided greatly by efforts for individual selected species, whose well-being can garner widespread interest, focus wider concern (including that from groups of citizen scientists), and demonstrate the intricacies of the biology of those species. The focal species, usually those selected for priority treatment by being signalled in some way as ‘threatened’, are a major avenue toward communicating the importance and vulnerability of grassland insects, and their wider interactions. Almost by definition, these ‘flagship species’ are ecological specialists with particular limited resource needs, occurring in small and few populations, restricted in distribution, and showing signs of historical and/or current declines from a variety of threats. Some are the focus of continuing conservation campaigns, many necessarily dealing primarily with conservation of the species’ particular habitat and its wider enveloping grassland. Many studies, at least initially, may be driven by fates of individual sites, such as by remnant grasslands threatened with development, and in which optimal management measures may be highly individualistic to accommodate site features. Many conservation measures for rare insects on grasslands must necessarily focus on the single or few sites in which the focal species occurs.

Large mammals that occur in low densities, particularly in the high-altitude areas, are globally threatened due to fragile climatic and ecological envelopes. Among bear species, the Himalayan brown bear (Ursus arctos isabellinus) has a distribution that is restricted to Himalayan highlands with relatively small and fragmented populations. To date, very little scientific information on the Himalayan brown bear, which is vital for the conservation of the species and the management of its habitats, especially in protected areas of the landscape, is available. The present study aims to understand the effectiveness of existing Himalayan Protected Areas in terms of representativeness for the conservation of Himalayan brown bear (HBB), an umbrella species in high-altitude habitats of the Himalayan region. We used the ensemble approach of the species distribution model and then assessed biological connectivity to predict the current and future distribution and movement of HBB in climate change scenarios for the year 2050. Approximately 33 protected areas (PAs) currently possess suitable habitats. Our model suggests a massive decline of approximately 73.38% and 72.87% under 4.5 and 8.5 representative concentration pathway (RCP) respectively in the year 2050 compared with the current distribution. The predicted change in suitability will result in loss of habitats from thirteen PAs; eight will become completely uninhabitable by the year 2050, followed by loss of connectivity in the majority of PAs. Habitat configuration analysis suggested a 40% decline in the number of suitable patches, a reduction in large habitat patches (up to 50%) and aggregation of suitable areas (9%) by 2050, indicating fragmentation. The predicted change in geographic isotherm will result in loss of habitats from thirteen PAs, eight of them will become completely inhabitable. Hence, these PAs may lose their effectiveness and representativeness in achieving the very objective of their existence or conservation goals. Therefore, we recommend adaptive spatial planning for protecting suitable habitats distributed outside the PA for climate change adaptation.

The use of a charismatic umbrella species as surrogate for sympatric species is often advocated as an efficient approach. However, comprehensive evaluations from a spatio-temporal perspective are few, leaving the long-term effectiveness of such practices remain uncertain. We modeled the habitat change for giant panda and eight sympatric mammalian species using observations from extensive camera trap surveys and remotely-sensed environmental predictors during two time periods, early 2000s and early 2010s. We found that the degree and spatial pattern of the habitat suitability change varied among species. The overall habitat suitability improved between the early 2000s and early 2010s for seven target species including giant panda Ailuropoda melanoleuca, suggesting positive effects of several recent conservation projects in restoring natural landscapes for certain species groups. However, the current nature reserve system designed for giant pandas did not adequately cover critical landscapes for several species, including the two species who experienced net habitat loss, Endangered forest musk deer Moschus berezovskii and Vulnerble Asiatic black bear Ursus thibetanus. To conserve multiple species simultaneously in this region, we recommend establishing nature reserves for other threatened species who share dissimilar habitat needs with giant panda, and adding a widely distributed omnivores, Asiatic black bear, as a surrogate species in central and southwest China. These findings reveal the risk of using umbrella species as a conservation shortcut in protecting animal communities in China, and have substantial implications for other regions where the majority of the conservation funds are directed toward a single charismatic species.

Background and Research Lack of information on the distribution of threatened aquatic species impedes their conservation, thus predisposing them to extinction risk before being reported. Hence, this study reports in Nigeria, for the first time, the occurrence and habitat specificity of the larva of Pentaphlebia stahli (Zygoptera: Pentaphlebiidae) a vulnerable damselfly. Methods Samples of P. stahli were collected in July and December 2020 from a rural stream situated at the Ekor Waterfalls in the Cross River State of Nigeria and very close to the Nigeria–Cameroon border. Some water quality parameters were also measured in each sampling period. Results A total of 27 larvae of P. stahli and 1 teneral adult emerging from its exuvia were recorded in the two sampling periods. The habitat was a forested stream characterized by rapids, falls, and dark rock substrata. Water flows at a fast rate of 1 m in 3 or 4 seconds, thus characterizing a rifle and headwater stream. Dissolved oxygen concentration was between 8.05 and 8.09 mg/L, while dissolved oxygen saturation was ∼98%. Biological oxygen demand was between 1.04 and 1.08 mg/L, while pH ranged from 7.28 and 7.56. Conclusion The stream could be described as having high ecological integrity as evidenced in its optimum range of values for the investigated water parameters and the presence of a threatened species. Implications for Conservation Based on habitat specificity, P. stahli is considered an umbrella species required for conserving other co-occurring species in the tropical stream and its riparian forest.

The Amazon rainforest covers more than 60% of Bolivia’s lowlands, providing habitat for many endemic and threatened species. Bolivia has the highest rates of deforestation of the Amazon biome, which degrades and fragments species habitat. Anthropogenic habitat changes could be exacerbated by climate change, and therefore, developing relevant strategies for biodiversity protection under global change scenarios is a necessary step in conservation planning. In this research we used multi-species umbrella concept to evaluate the degree of habitat impacts due to climate and land cover change in Bolivia. We used species distribution modeling to map three focal species (Jaguar, Lowland Tapir and Lesser Anteater) and assessed current protected area network effectiveness under future climate and land cover change scenarios for 2050. The studied focal species will lose between 70% and 83% of their ranges under future climate and land-cover change scenarios, decreasing the level of protection to 10% of their original ranges. Existing protected area network should be reconsidered to maintain current and future biodiversity habitats.

Umbrella species are rarely selected systematically from a range of candidate species. On sandy beaches, birds that nest on the upper beach or in dunes are threatened globally and hence are prime candidates for conservation intervention and putative umbrella species status. Here we use a maximum-likelihood, multi-species distribution modeling approach to select an appropriate conservation umbrella from a group of candidate species occupying similar habitats. We identify overlap in spatial extent and niche characteristics among four beach-nesting bird species of conservation concern, American oystercatchers (Haematopus palliatus), black skimmers (Rynchops niger), least terns (Sterna antillarum) and piping plovers (Charadrius melodus), across their entire breeding range in New Jersey, USA. We quantify the benefit and efficiency of using each species as a candidate umbrella on the remaining group. Piping plover nesting habitat encompassed 86% of the least tern habitat but only 15% and 13% of the black skimmer and American oystercatcher habitat, respectively. However, plovers co-occur with all three species across 66% of their total nesting habitat extent (~ 649 ha), suggesting their value as an umbrella at the local scale. American oystercatcher nesting habitat covers 100%, 99% and 47% of piping plover, least tern and black skimmer habitat, making this species more appropriate conservation umbrellas at a regional scale. Our results demonstrate that the choice of umbrella species requires explicit consideration of spatial scale and an understanding of the habitat attributes that an umbrella species represents and to which extent it encompasses other species of conservation interest. Notwithstanding the attractiveness of the umbrella species concept, local conservation interventions especially for breeding individuals in small populations may still be needed.

Current rates of species endangerment and extinction are unprecedented in modern times. Conservation efforts aim to slow down, stop, and reverse threats to species and thus the current loss of biodiversity. However, the extinction risk to species continues to rise. Thus far, research has examined the efficiency and the effectiveness of conservation actions individually, yet, the full suite of implemented conservation actions should be considered. We assessed all implemented conservation actions for avian species listed under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) in the United States. Using data available through the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) we assessed the relationships between conservation actions implemented, population trends, and financial expenditures for all listed species each year between 1996 and 2013. We found positive associations between the amount of funding allocated for a species and their population trend. Implementation of the conservation actions habitat protection and educational awareness were positively associated with annual funding for a species. Our results highlight the disparity in conservation action implementation and resource allocation between ESA listed species on the mainland and on islands in the USA. Together these results and the cause and effect relationships they suggest could provide a pathway toward more effective conservation programs.

Flagship species, especially mammals and birds, are commonly used to increase awareness of conservation issues in marine and terrestrial ecosystems. However, flagship species oriented programs are often ad hoc with initiatives scarce in the freshwater context. Here, we aim to identify potential flagship candidates that would appeal to a broad cross section of society at a continental scale where freshwater ecosystems are under threat from human impacts. We identified 19 species from a list of 299 Australian freshwater fishes on the basis of body size, trophic guild and threatened species status assuming these characteristics of flagship species are transferable from previous work on terrestrial flagship species. We considered the potential of species to be of international appeal but focused mostly on eight relevant interest groups within Australia. This followed the rationale that public engagement with conservation issues in freshwater systems might be more effective if the link between fish species and the decisions people make were better understood, and we acknowledge the diverging interests of stakeholders. This scoping work contributes towards addressing the challenges of connecting societies to the principles of sharing water resources with ecosystems, and represents the first continental-scale assessment of its kind.

Nature conservation legislation affords different degrees of protection to specifically named species, ranging from recognition within the planning system to strict protection from harm and habitat loss. This review considers two groups of species that do not have strict protection but are recognised within ‘development control’ (the process that regulates the planning of land use and new buildings), namely Annex II species of the Habitats Directive (HD) and Species of Principal Importance identified under UK legislation and policy. A critical point often forgotten by the HD's detractors is that Annex II is not only a list of species that require protection but also a list of species that represent criteria for the designation of protected sites. It is not feasible for all threatened species to be protected due to administrative and legal ramifications, so the subset of species listed need to have wider merit as umbrella species. The selection of widespread species on Annex II results in the creation of a better network of Special Areas of Conservation than if geographically localised or endemic species are used, and benefits a suite of rare and scarce species beyond those named in Annex II. Species of Principal Importance enable recognition of invertebrates in the UK planning system even though many of them are not directly threatened with national loss. Given the intense scrutiny to which nature conservation legislation is exposed, it is important for critics to understand the function of legislation and its application in the sociopolitical arena.

China has a long history of deforestation and environmental degradation. Because China is also lacking biological reserves, off-reserve conservation is a major contributor to its conservation efforts. Off-reserve conservation in China is primarily being achieved within afforestation and low-intensity agriculture. We compare ant diversity of three habitats: Natural Forest, Disturbed Forest and Plantation, to assess the conservation potential of these multiple land uses. Natural Forest consistently had the greatest plot-level species richness of the three habitats, but this pattern was only statistically significant for arboreal ants. Functional group profiles showed that Specialist Predators were significantly more represented in Disturbed Forest, Opportunists were significantly more represented in one Plantation site, coupled with a lack of Subordinate Camponotini, and Generalised Myrmicinae were more represented in a second Plantation site coupled with a complete lack of Cryptic Species. Multivariate analysis revealed significant differences of ant species composition between habitats. Within IndVal analyses, 17 species were associated with Natural Forest and nine with Plantation. No species were associated with Disturbed Forest. Reforestation and low-intensity agriculture clearly provide habitat for many species, but will not necessarily substitute for undisturbed habitat for many other species, especially specialised species. China’s off-reserve conservation could be enhanced by developing a greater understanding of agricultural practices and reforestation techniques that promote species diversity, especially for uncommon, threatened and specialised species.

The whale shark, Rhincodon typus, is a charismatic umbrella species whose highly mobile nature is not yet fully understood. Whale sharks roam the Philippine archipelago with two major aggregations known to occur at Donsol and at a provisioning site in Cebu. This is the first description of a previously identified aggregation occurring off Panaon Island, Southern Leyte through the use of photographic identification. In total, 93 individual whale sharks were identified, with significant male bias (58%). The mean estimated total length of individuals was 5.72 ± 1.02 m S.D., indicating a juvenile aggregation. Partial or complete fin amputations, potentially resulting from fishing lines, boat propellers or net entanglement, were observed on 27% of animals, highlighting some of the risks human activities can have on this threatened species. Multiple parallel scars, identified as propeller impact, were observed on 45% of animals. Dedicated research seasons in 2013 and 2014 yielded very different whale shark encounters with 366 in 2013 and 12 in 2014, yet highlighted the recurrence of individuals at the study site. Complemented by data collected through citizen science, maximum likelihood methods were used to model mean residency of whale sharks at Panaon Island of 27.04 days. The modelled lagged identification rate showed that many whale sharks return to the study site over time. Whale sharks from Panaon Island were identified through photo-ID and citizen science at other sites in the Philippines, as well as a match to Taiwan, representing the first international match through photo-ID in South-east Asia with a minimum distance covered of 1600 km. Given the highly mobile nature and recent exploitation of this species, management is recommended as a single unit regionally in South-east Asia. Additional research is needed to focus on the drivers of variation in encounters at whale shark aggregation sites. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

In biodiversity-rich landscapes that are developing rapidly, it is generally impossible to delineate land use and prioritize conservation actions in relation to the full variability of species and their responses to anthropogenic activity. Consequently, conservation policy often focuses on protecting habitat used by a few flagship, indicator or umbrella species like tigers Panthera tigris and Asian elephants Elephas maximus, which potentially leaves out species that do not share these habitat preferences. We demonstrate an empirical approach that clustered 14 mammals into surrogate groups that reflect their unique conservation needs. We surveyed a 787 km2 multiple-use area in the Shencottah Gap of the Western Ghats, India, using foot surveys and camera-trap surveys. Using ecological niche factor analysis, we generated indices of species prevalence (marginality and tolerance) and habitat preferences (factor correlations to marginality axis). We then clustered species by both of the above index types to reveal four clusters based on prevalence and four clusters based on habitat preference. Most clusters contained at least one threatened species. Low-prevalence lion-tailed macaques Macaca silenus and tigers were strongly associated with closed forests and low human disturbance. But elephants, sloth bears Melursus ursinus and gaur Bos gaurus were more tolerant of anthropogenic impact, and sloth bears and gaur preferred open forests and grasslands. Dhole Cuon alpinus and sambar Rusa unicolor were associated with highly anthropogenic habitat (farmland, cash crop and forestry plantations) with high human use. Thus, reliance on flagship species for conservation planning can both underestimate and overestimate the ability of other species to persist in multiple-use landscapes; protecting flagship species would only protect species with similar habitat preferences. For species that avoid human impacts more than the flagship species, core habitat must be protected from human disturbance. For more tolerant species, conservation in anthropogenic habitat may hinge on policies that bolster coexistence with humans.

Aim Land use change is one major threat to freshwater biodiversity, and land use change scenarios can help to assess threats from future land use change, thereby guiding proactive conservation decisions. Our goal was to identify which range-restricted freshwater fish species are most likely to be affected by land use change and to determine where threats to these species from future land use change in the conterminous United States are most pronounced. Location United States of America. Methods We focused on range-restricted freshwater fish species, identified which of these species are considered threatened based on either the International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN)'s Red List or the Endangered Species Act (ESA), and compared their distributions to patterns of future land use changes by 2051 under three scenarios. Results We found that 14% of the range-restricted species had >30% of their distribution area occupied by intensive land use in 2001, and this number increased from 27 to 58% by 2051 depending on the land use scenario. Among the 57 species most likely to be strongly affected by intensive land use, only 26% of these species are currently listed as threatened on the IUCN Red List, and 12% are listed as threatened under the ESA. Main conclusions Our approach demonstrates the value of considering future land use change scenarios in extinction risk assessment frameworks and offers guidelines for how this could be achieved for future assessments.

We currently have a meager understanding of the species attributes viewed as important for conservation by children, despite the fact that arguments for biodiversity conservation often hinge on the bequest value of species. We conducted a study of children between the ages of 4 and 14 (N = 183) on Andros Island, The Bahamas to determine how they prioritized wildlife species for conservation based on five attributes: endemism, use for hunting and fishing, rapid decline in population size, visibility around their home, and ecological significance. Children tended to rank ecological significance as the most important attribute for prioritizing wildlife for protection, followed closely by endemism, with other attributes being less important and not significantly different from one another. However, participants in a local environmental education program (N = 67) placed greater prioritization to species experiencing rapid population declines. We also found that boys prioritized use for hunting and fishing as more important for conservation than girls, older children placed greater importance on species with declining numbers and less importance on visibility of animals around their house, and children who had previously fished placed greater importance on endemism. These findings help elucidate how children value biodiversity, and suggest children’s conservation priorities may align relatively well with those of conservation biologists, especially after exposure to environmental education. We suggest that better understanding how children prioritize wildlife attributes for conservation can lead to more informed biodiversity conservation decisions and more effective policy implementation, as the perspectives of children can help bridge the gap between public opinion and scientific opinion.

Given the limited funds available, spatial prioritisation is necessary to help decide when and where to undertake conservation. One method for setting local scale priorities for conservation action is the landscape species approach which aims to identify priorities based on the needs of a small number of wide ranging species with large environmental impacts. Despite being used for the past decade by conservation organisations such as Wildlife Conservation Society, the effectiveness of the approach for representing a more comprehensive range of biodiversity has never been evaluated. Here we compare conservation priorities identified using a suite of landscape species (n =13) against those using many alternative sets of threatened or endemic species (n = 7-88) to assess the applicability and suitability of the landscape species approach in a biologically diverse landscape (Greater Virunga Landscape, Uganda, Rwanda, and Democratic Republic of Congo, Africa). We defined the minimum area needed to conserve each species on the basis of the species' range size. We found that prioritising for landscape species adequately conserves only 31(35%) species, whereas prioritising for an equal number of endemic species, threatened species, or randomly sampled species adequately conserves 74%, 69% and 42% of species, respectively. We also found that prioritising for one taxonomic group (birds or plants) alone resulted in better surrogacy performance than the Landscape Species. These results question the underlying assumption of the landscape species approach, that managing threats to Landscape Species will also manage threats to all other species, as it is applied in the Greater Virunga Landscape. (C) 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Many countries have conservation plans for threatened species, but such plans have generally been developed without taking into account the potential impacts of climate change. Here, we apply a decision framework, specifically developed to identify and prioritise climate change adaptation actions and demonstrate its use for 30 species threatened in the UK. Our aim is to assess whether government conservation recommendations remain appropriate under a changing climate. The species, associated with three different habitats (lowland heath, broadleaved woodland and calcareous grassland), were selected from a range of taxonomic groups (primarily moths and vascular plants, but also including bees, bryophytes, carabid beetles and spiders). We compare the actions identified for these threatened species by the decision framework with those included in existing conservation plans, as developed by the UK Government’s statutory adviser on nature conservation. We find that many existing conservation recommendations are also identified by the decision framework. However, there are large differences in the spatial prioritisation of actions when explicitly considering projected climate change impacts. This includes recommendations for actions to be carried out in areas where species do not currently occur, in order to allow them to track movement of suitable conditions for their survival. Uncertainties in climate change projections are not a reason to ignore them. Our results suggest that existing conservation plans, which do not take into account potential changes in suitable climatic conditions for species, may fail to maximise species persistence. Comparisons across species also suggest a more habitat-focused approach could be adopted to enable climate change adaptation for multiple species.

Woodland-specialist epiphytic bryophytes are both a threatened ecological guild of forest species as well as a precise bioindicator of conservation value of forest ecosystems. However, due to lack of data on distribution, there is no information about their potential reaction to predicted climate change. For that reason we aimed to evaluate impact of climate change and forest continuity on distributions of an umbrella species of woodland-specialist epiphytic bryophytes. We compiled available data on Dicranum viride distributions in Europe, as this species is a subject of Natura 2000 conservation. We provided a species distribution model (developed using MaxEnt) using bioclimatic variables and a forest continuity map for Europe. We evaluated predicted changes in potential distribution for 2061–2080 using three climate change scenarios. We also assessed substratum preferences of this species. Our study revealed that forest continuity is the most important predictor of D. viride occurrence, and next were mean temperature of the driest quarter and precipitation in the warmest quarter. Projected climate change would lead to small losses of D. viride habitat suitability in Southern and Western Europe and increases in Scandinavia, under the assumption of constant forest continuity. Due to limited dispersal capabilities and specific habitat requirements, forest continuity and suitable forest assemblages/vegetation types play a superior role in maintaining woodland-specialist epiphytic bryophytes. For that reason loss of mature forest ecosystems is a more important threat to epiphytic bryophytes than climate change.

Large-scale transboundary conservation initiatives are necessary to respond to threats against tropical forests, and the jaguar (Panthera onca), a flagship and umbrella species in the Neotropics, is an ideal target species for such initiatives. We estimated jaguar abundance and occupancy of medium- and large-sized mammals and birds across a transboundary landscape in the northwestern Amazon biome using camera-trap data from 168 stations; specifically within three management regimes of indigenous and protected lands in Colombia (the indigenous reserve of Umancia), Ecuador (Cuyabeno Wildlife Reserve), and Peru (Gueppi-Sekime National Park). Based on spatial capture-recapture models, we estimated jaguar density in the study area at 2.20 ± 0.44 individuals per 100 km2, implying an abundance of 322 jaguars (95% CI = 217–477). These estimates suggest that an entire mega-landscape, which also includes other protected areas and indigenous lands, could harbor as many as 2000 jaguars (95% CI = 1586–3498). We found that jaguar abundance and medium-to large-sized terrestrial vertebrate species richness (totaling 24 mammals and 4 birds) were similar under the three management regimes. Overall, our study indicates that a significant healthy population of jaguars can survive in this large-scale conservation corridor that crosses country borders, a place where protected areas and indigenous territories are key. This study is among the first to take a transboundary approach for jaguar conservation in a protected but still threatened part of the Amazon biome, inhabited by several ancient indigenous people. As a large forest block, this conservation landscape serves not only as an effective buffer against deforestation and a stronghold for jaguar populations and medium- and large-sized vertebrates, but it also secures the well-being of local people.

Successional and other temporal habitat changes may also affect conservation areas and reduce their conservation value. Active management to promote vulnerable habitat features may be an effective, but controversial, solution. Old deciduous trees and deciduous dead wood in boreal forest reserves are examples of habitat features that may be lost during succession, yet several threatened species, including the white-backed woodpecker (Dendrocopos leucotos), are dependent on them. Encroaching spruce have been removed from white-backed woodpecker territories to promote the regeneration of deciduous trees and to preserve habitat quality, although the efficiency of this treatment is unclear. In this study, we measured the canopy tree potential (integrating the number, height and condition) of aspen, birch and spruce saplings, and the number and basal area of mature trees in control and treatment sites 2–12 years after spruce removal. The canopy tree potential of aspen saplings increased on treated sites, along with a decrease in the number of spruce saplings and mature spruce trees. We found no evidence that spruce removal would benefit birch saplings. For both aspen and birch saplings, the abundance of mature trees of the same species increased their canopy tree potential more than spruce removal. Overall, our results indicate that spruce removal facilitates aspen regeneration, particularly in areas where large mature aspen trees are present. The lack of birch regeneration, however, indicates that maintaining a full array of important habitat characteristics in white-backed woodpecker territories may require a more comprehensive set of management tools than simply removal of spruce. peerReviewed

The umbrella species concept posits that protection of a single, wide-ranging species may confer protection to a large number of sympatric species. Due to their large home ranges, widespread distribution in the Mesoamerican Biodiversity Hotspot (MBH), and status as the focal species of numerous conservation initiatives, the jaguar Panthera onca is an ideal species to evaluate the umbrella strategy. After ground-truthing jaguar corridors from 2009 - 2016, we tested the umbrella value of jaguars for endemic herpetofauna (Amphibia, Reptilia) in Nuclear Central America (NCA), a ~ 370 000 km² sub-region of the MBH. NCA contains the greatest density of threatened reptiles in the Western Hemisphere and harbors extraordinary high diversity of amphibians, the most threatened class of vertebrate worldwide. Of the 304 regional endemics in NCA, the distributions of 187 (61.5 %) species of amphibians and reptiles overlapped ground-truthed jaguar range. The distributions of 14 reptiles, including a critically endangered Bothriechis spp. and two endangered Norops spp., occur exclusively within jaguar distribution. Similarly, the distributions of 19 amphibians, including four critically endangered Craugastor spp. and two critically endangered Plectrohyla spp. occur entirely within jaguar distribution. Our results indicate greater effectiveness of ground-truthed jaguar distribution than modeled and randomly selected networks in overlapping the distributions of endemic herpetofauna, especially threatened amphibians, in NCA. Substantiation of multi-taxa dependence on habitat in jaguar distribution would strengthen justification for wider application of the umbrella strategy beyond NCA and aid conservation planning in the MBH.

Background: Steppe-birds face drastic population declines throughout Europe. The Dupont’s lark Chersophilus duponti is an endangered steppe-bird species whose European distribution is restricted to Spain. This scarce passerine bird could be considered an ‘umbrella species’, since its population trends may reveal the conservation status of shrub-steppes. However, trends for the Spanish, and thus European, population of Dupont’s lark are unknown. In this work, we evaluated Dupont’s lark population trends in Europe employing the most recent and largest compiled database to date (92 populations over 12 years). In addition, we assessed the species threat category according to current applicable criteria (approved in March 2017) in the Spanish catalogue of threatened species (SCTS), which have never been applied to the Dupont’s lark nor to any other Spanish species. Finally, we compared the resulting threat categories with the current conservation status at European, national and regional levels. Methods: We fitted switching linear trend models (software TRIM—Trends and Indices for Monitoring data) to evaluate population trends at national and regional scale (i.e. per Autonomous Community) during the period 2004–2015. In addition, the average finite annual rate of change (λ) obtained from the TRIM analysis was employed to estimate the percentage of population size change in a 10-year period. A threat category was assigned following A1 and A2 criteria applicable in the SCTS. Results: Trends showed an overall 3.9% annual decline rate for the Spanish population (moderate decline, following TRIM). Regional analyses showed high inter-regional variability. We forecasted a 32.8% average decline over the next 10 years. According to these results, the species should be listed as ‘Vulnerable’ at a national scale (SCTS). At the regional level, the conservation status of the species is of particular concern in Andalusia and Castile-Leon, where the species qualifies for listing as ‘Endangered’. Discussion: Our results highlight the concerning conservation status of the European Dupont’s lark population, undergoing a 3.9% annual decline rate. Under this scenario, the implementation of a wide-ranging conservation plan is urgently needed and is vital to ensuring the conservation of this steppe-bird species. The role of administrations in matters of nature protection and the cataloguing of endangered species is crucial to reverse declining population trends of this and other endangered taxa, This work was supported by the Education, Youth and Sport Bureau (Madrid Regional Government) and the European Social Fund for the Youth Employment Initiative (reference number PEJ15/AMB/AI-0059). This research is a contribution to the Excellence Network Remedinal 3CM (S2013/MAE2719), supported by Madrid Regional Government; the project ‘Scientific basis for the National Conservation for Dupont’s Lark in Spain’, funded by the Biodiversity Foundation of the Ministry of Agriculture and Fisheries, Food and Environment; the Life Ricotí project (LIFE15-NAT-ES-000802), supported by the European Commission; and the BBVA-Ricotí project, funded by the BBVA Foundation.

Aim: Although urbanization impacts many species, there is little information on the patterns of occurrences of threatened species in urban relative to non-urban areas. By assessing the extent of the distribution of threatened species across all Australian cities, we aim to investigate the currently under-utilized opportunity that cities present for national biodiversity conservation. Location: Australian mainland, Tasmania and offshore islands. Methods: Distributions of Australia's 1643 legally protected terrestrial species (hereafter 'threatened species') were compiled. We assessed the extent to which they overlapped with 99 cities (ofmore than 10,000 people), with all non-urban areas, and with simulated 'dummy' cities which covered the same area and bioregion as the true cities but were non-urban. We analysed differences between animals and plants, and examined variability within these groups using species accumulation modelling. Threatened species richness of true versus dummy cities was analysed using generalized linear mixed-effects models. Results: Australian cities support substantially more nationally threatened animal and plant species than all other non-urban areas on a unit-area basis. Thirty per cent of threatened species were found to occur in cities. Distribution patterns differed between plants and animals: individual threatened plant species were generally found in fewer cities than threatened animal species, yet plants were more likely to have a greater proportion of their distribution in urban areas than animals. Individual cities tended to contain unique suites of threatened species, especially threatened plants. The analysis of true versus dummy cities demonstrated that, even after accounting for factors such as net primary productivity and distance to the coast, cities still consistently supported a greater number of threatened species. Main conclusions: This research highlights that Australian cities are important for the conservation of threatened species, and that the species assemblages of individual cities are relatively distinct. National conservation policy should recognize that cities play an integral role when planning for and managing threatened species.

Spatial conservation prioritization needs a strong informational background on the conservation value of sites. However, standard diversity indices do not distinguish between less valuable (e.g. invasive species) and highly valuable species (e.g. threatened endemics). Furthermore, park managers often lack the taxonomic capacity to study species-rich insect groups. Therefore, there is a need for indices that consider the conservation value of species and simple indicators for the conservation value of sites. The aim of our study was to develop such indices and test them in a biodiversity hotspot. We studied grasshopper diversity in the UNESCO World Heritage “Cape Floral Region Protected Areas” (South Africa). We used endemism, mobility and rarity to calculate a grasshopper conservation index (GCI) for each species and site and a standardized index (GCIn) to evaluate the mean conservation value of species per site. We analyzed the indicator value (IndVal) of environmental factors for identifying sites of high conservation value or high biodiversity. Unlike plant species richness, we found the highest species richness in the Eastern Cape. The main factors determining grasshopper diversity were vegetation heterogeneity, altitude and cover of bare ground. The abundance of wingless grasshopper species and the ratio of wingless to winged species were suitable indicators of conservation value (regarding the diversity of rare or endemic species) of sites. These factors might function as conservation indicators in other regions as well, as they are generally associated with the occurrence of endemic species. GCI/GCIn are globally applicable tools for the evaluation of grasshopper communities.

Aim To compile an inventory of freshwater fish species in China, and to investigate these data to determine spatial patterns in species richness, endemism and threatened species for the purpose of facilitating conservation. Location China Methods Literature, databases and fish collections were examined to create an inventory database of freshwater fishes of China. This list was analysed to determine species richness, endemism and threatened species. spss and origin software were used to determine relationships between these three parameters across the area and length of river basins. Coefficients of fish diversity for each major river were calculated using the Gleason Index. Results Chinese freshwater fish fauna is comprised of 1323 species; the majority of species belong to Cypriniformes and Cyprinidae. Of 877 species endemic to China, 161 of 199 threatened species are endemic, with most classified as ‘endangered’ (85 species) or ‘vulnerable’ (70). Species endemism and the number of threatened species correlate positively with species richness. River basin area and length have no direct bearing on either species richness or endemism. The Pearl River was identified as the most species-rich system. It also has the most endemic and threatened fish species. Main conclusions China's vast size, variable geography and climate influence patterns in species diversity and endemism. Its freshwater fish fauna is rich and largely endemic and a significant number of these endemic species are threatened. Dam construction, water pollution, overfishing and invasive species pose threats to native biodiversity. National assessment of threatened species is urgently needed. The Yangtze, Yellow and Pearl rivers require prioritized national protection. Environmental effects of development require serious consideration and, potentially, proactive conservation efforts and mitigation. Development on international rivers needs to consider environmental policies of all countries owning spans of the systems, particularly the wishes and concerns of nations with lower spans of a system.

In order to tackle the current biodiversity crisis, a plethora of tempting shortcuts, such as the surrogate species approach, have recently been used to pinpoint important areas for protection. At the same time, species-specific conservation programmes are implemented in order to ameliorate the status of target threatened species. In the cases where species-specific programmes are evaluated and found to provide no apparent benefit to the target species, it is important to evaluate whether such conservation efforts may benefit other taxa sharing the same landscape with the target species. Here we assess the surrogacy potential of white-tailed sea eagle (WTSE) nesting habitat as indicator of biodiversity richness (using vascular plants and fungi as surrogated taxa) on islands of the Archipelago Sea in South-western Finland. We compared species richness on islands with and without a WTSE nest. We found weak evidence that islands with a WTSE nest support higher richness of vascular plants than islands without a nest. Conversely, we found no evidence that WTSE nests could be valid surrogates for fungi species inhabiting old-growth forests. Within the spatio-temporal and ecological limits of the present study, we suggest that the nesting habitat of WTSE may hold some surrogate potential for taxa, such as vascular plants, that may indicate high habitat diversity. This finding however remains to be confirmed. At the same time, it appears evident that the WTSE nesting habitat has poor surrogate potential with regards to old-growth forests. Overall, our findings line up with a growing body of other studies calling for caution and careful evaluation of the surrogacy efficiency of single species.

Biosystematics and conservation biology are critical scientific disciplines that underpin the management of biological diversity. This is because biosystematics provides two basic elements that are fundamental to conservation management: the circumscription of species and the spatial distribution of species. These elements in turn allow conservation biologists to determine the components of biodiversity, such as local species richness (α-diversity), composition and community structure, patterns of spatial turnover and heterogeneity (β-diversity), levels of endemism, and location of ‘biodiversity hotspots’. This information ultimately provides a framework for systematic conservation planning for the management of biological diversity and natural resources. In this review, drawing on examples of Australian diurnal Lepidoptera (butterflies and day-flying moths), we discuss three areas of conservation biology that are crucial for insect biodiversity conservation: (1) inventory and estimation of faunal richness; (2) monitoring for conservation management and the selection and use of bioindicators; and (3) assessment of conservation status and recovery of threatened species. We then explore the capacity of biosystematics to complement and enhance these programmes. Major challenges for biosystematics are to catalogue and map the Earth's known species, to discover and describe new or as-yet-unknown species, to reconstruct the evolutionary history or tree of life and to incorporate phylogenetic diversity (taxonomic distinctiveness) as a component of biodiversity into conservation planning and practical nature conservation. The first two tasks, which need to be completed relatively urgently in an era of biodiversity crisis and a limited and declining pool of taxonomic expertise, are required in order to optimise conservation effort of the world's biodiversity. It is recommended that to overcome the taxonomic impediment for insect conservation taxonomic attention should focus on a limited set of ‘priority’ taxa, and the rate at which new species are discovered and described needs to be accelerated (by at least an order of magnitude). An agenda for future research in biosystematics and conservation biology is proposed as a guideline for biodiversity conservation for Australian entomology.