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Fungal diversity is threatened by climate change, land-use change, and environmental pollution, and requires urgent conservation action. Construction of the fungal species database is an important prerequisite for the study and conservation of fungal diversity. Recently developed DNA barcoding and metabarcoding technologies can provide accurate, rapid, and highly efficient identification on a large scale, and to a large extent compensate for the defects of traditional identification methods. In this paper, we review the application of metabarcoding in fungal species diversity assessment, the study of mechanisms underlying fungal diversity, and the reconstruction of fungal palaeoecology. We emphasize that the application of metabarcoding technology in fungal diversity studies is still in the primary phase, and greater efforts are needed in the construction of reliable reference databases, the optimization of experimental procedures, and updates of bioinformatics tools. Hence, we suggest enhancing cooperation among fungal taxonomists, ecologists, and computer technicians. They should work together to address problems in fungal diversity studies via metabarcoding, which would provide more sound scientific evidence for fungal diversity conservation on a large scale.

Species monitoring is fundamental to species conservation.The Chinese Government promulgated the Strategy and Action Plan for Biodiversity Conservation in China(2011—2030) in September 2010.One of the short-term targets of the strategy and action plan is to establish a preliminary monitoring system for China′s biodiversity by 2015.In the same year,the Convention on Biological Diversity adopted what is known as the 2020 targets or the Aichi Targets.It is necessary to enhance biodiversity monitoring to implement the strategy and action plan and to achieve the 2020 targets.Europe and North America have a long history of species monitoring.However,China has very limited skills in this area,with outdated techniques and often inadequate facilities.In this paper,we analyzed methods used to develop monitoring plans,select monitoring indicators,and design sampling,based on experience related to species monitoring in Europe and North America,so as to provide guidance for the design of species monitoring networks in China.Species monitoring usually involves four steps,such as developing monitoring plans,implementing field monitoring,analyzing and reporting monitoring data,and evaluating the monitoring plans.The development of monitoring plans should address four questions:(1) why monitor?(2) where should monitoring be done?(3) what should be monitored? and(4) how should monitoring be conducted? Objectives of species monitoring should be explicit,measureable,and practical.The following taxa should be considered in selecting indicator species:(1) threatened species;(2) species with social or economic value;(3) species important to the maintenance of ecosystem structure and processes;(4) species sensitive to management intervention;and(5) species sensitive to ecosystem or habitat change.Taxa with different ecological requirements and different life histories should be selected as indicator species.Monitoring indicators should be measurable,science-based,understandable by the public,with low monitoring cost and high benefits.Typical indicators include species richness,abundance,survival rate,community composition,habitat health,and human intervention.Monitoring methods should also be science-based and can detect relevant changes.Standardized monitoring methods with high efficiency and low cost should be employed.Random sampling should be used in species monitoring.Sampling units should be selected randomly from the target population,where appropriate,stratified sampling should be employed,so as to reflect the features of target regions and to reduce bias or errors as far as possible.Monitoring plans should address spatial variation and detectability.The main means to avoid errors are to estimate and correct detectability.The calculation of sample size should ensure that actual changes can be detected effectively under a given confidence level.Sampling sites should be representative,and should reflect,with limited monitoring areas,the species composition and quantitative features of communities in the monitoring region.The scope,shape and locations of sample sites should also be considered in the sampling design.Monitoring plans should fully address conditions such as human resources available,funding and support facilities,and should be regularly assessed.Results of and problems in species monitoring should be reported regularly to relevant government bodies,so as to link species monitoring closely with conservation policies and actions.All steps in species monitoring should address the issue of standardization.The key elements to enhancing data standardization are to:(1) select and establish sampling sites strictly according to relevant requirements;(2) use well qualified monitoring staff skillfully for operating monitoring protocols and collect data in line with the protocols;and(3) establish and implement data appraisal procedures,so as to completely and carefully evaluate monitoring data.