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Newborn piglets have a high incidence of preweaning mortality that is not only associated with low birth weights but also with the presence of intra-uterine growth-restricted (IUGR) piglets. Such IUGR piglets are commonly seen in litters from hyperprolific sows as a result of insufficient placental transfer of nutrients. Nutritional strategies can be used prior to and during gestation to enhance foetal development and can also be implemented in the transition period to reduce the duration of farrowing and increase colostrum yield. Recent findings showed that the energy status of sows at the onset of farrowing is crucial to diminish stillbirth rate. Newborn piglets often fail to consume enough colostrum to promote thermostability and subsequent growth, and this is particularly problematic in very large litters when there are fewer available teats than the number of suckling piglets. One injection of 75 IU of oxytocin approximately 14 h after farrowing can prolong the colostral phase, hence increasing the supply of immunoglobulins to piglets. Nevertheless, assistance must be provided to piglets after birth in order to increase their chance of survival. Various approaches can be used, such as: (1) optimising the farrowing environment, (2) supervising farrowing and assisting newborn piglets, (3) using cross-fostering techniques, (4) providing nurse sows, and 5) providing artificial milk. Although research advances have been made in developing feeding and management strategies for sows that increase performance of their newborn piglets, much work still remains to be done to ensure that maximal outcomes are achieved., (Crown Copyright © 2021. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Transferring sows and their litters to group lactation (GL) after an initial period of farrowing crate (FC) housing could enhance the viability of GL for commercial production. Group lactation from 7 d postpartum would reduce the time sows spend in confinement, but the effects of early mixing on animal welfare and productivity require examination. Two experiments were conducted on sows and piglets kept in GL from 7, 10, or 14 d postpartum, compared with FC. Experiment 1 utilized 180 sows and 1,887 piglets over five time replicates (n = 60 sow and litter units per treatment) comparing GL from 7 or 14 d postpartum to FC. In experiment 2, 108 sows and 1,179 piglets were studied over three time replicates (n = 36 sow and litter units per treatment) comparing GL from 10 or 14 d postpartum to FC. All sows farrowed in FC. Group lactation sows were transferred to pens (one pen of five sows at 8.4 m2/sow and one pen of seven sows at 8.1 m2/sow, per GL treatment and replicate) with their litters at 7 (GL7), 10 (GL10), or 14 (GL14) d postpartum. Farrowing crate sows and their litters remained in their FC. Data were collected on sow feed intake and reproduction, piglet mortality (from day 6 postpartum), and sow and piglet weight changes, plasma cortisol concentrations, and injuries. Piglet mortality was greater in the GL7 (17 ± 1.8%) and GL10 treatments (12 ± 0.9%) compared with GL14 (8.3 ± 1.8% P ≤ 0.001 and 8.1 ± 0.9% P ≤ 0.001 in experiments 1 and 2), and greater in GL overall compared with FC (2.7 ± 1.5% and 1.8 ± 0.9% in FC in experiments 1 and 2; P ≤ 0.001). Piglets from GL7 were also lighter at weaning than GL14 piglets (P < 0.001), whereas GL10 and GL14 did not differ (P > 0.05). Overall, piglets in GL were lighter at weaning than piglets in FC (P ≤ 0.01). Sows from GL7 were heavier at weaning (P = 0.001), and GL10 sows tended to be heavier at weaning (P = 0.08), than GL14 and FC sows. Post-mixing, sow cortisol (P ≤ 0.01) and sow and piglet injuries (P ≤ 0.02) were greater in GL than FC. Treatment had no effect on sow feed intake or reproductive performance (P > 0.05). Under the conditions of this research, the known benefits of two-stage GL housing were achieved at a cost particularly to piglets in terms of increased piglet mortality and injuries after mixing, and reduced piglet growth. The risk of piglet mortality decreased with older age at mixing., (© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Society of Animal Science. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Phytogenic actives (PA) are plant-derived natural bioactive compounds that may promote livestock health and well-being, as well as improve growth performance and production efficiency. The current study aims to evaluate their effects on sows and their offspring. Eighty-one hyperprolific sows (up to parity 7) were assigned to 3 experimental treatments. Control sows were offered a nonsupplemented diet during gestation and lactation, and treated sows were fed the control diet supplemented with 1 g/kg of a blend of PA (BPA) in lactation (L) or during gestation and lactation (GL). An evaluation was made of placental and milk maternal transfer of these BPA and colostrum-milk features, sows and piglets antioxidant status, reproductive performance (litter size), body weight (BW) changes, weaning-estrus interval, and litter performance. Finally, piglet´s jejunum gene expression was measured. The BPA supplementation during gestation (GL) increased the number of piglets born alive (P = 0.020) and reduced (P < 0.05) the newborn piglets BW, while there were no differences among treatments on the suckling (day 20) and weaned (day 7) piglets BW (P > 0.05). Dietary phytogenic volatile compounds reached GL placental fluid, and milk of L and GL sows (P < 0.05). Moreover, colostrum protein in GL and milk fat content in L and GL were increased (P < 0.05). Milk of GL showed inhibitory activity against Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus (P < 0.05). Antioxidant status of GL sows showed an enhanced (P < 0.05) of catalase (CAT) and total antioxidant capacity levels at early gestation (day 35), whereas higher levels of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GSH-Px) enzymes at late gestation (day 110). Likewise, GL newborn piglets showed higher CAT levels, whereas both CAT and SOD levels in suckling piglets, as well as CAT, SOD, and GSH-Px in weaned piglets, were increased in L and GL (P < 0.05). Jejunum messenger ribonucleic acid abundance of suckling piglets in L and GL groups showed overexpression of barrier function MUC2, digestive enzyme IDO, and immune response PPARGC-α, TNF-α, TGF-β1, and IL-10 genes (P < 0.05). In conclusion, dietary BPA supplementation in hyperprolific sows increased the litter size (born alive) and improved the composition and bioactivity of colostrum and milk, besides, modified the antioxidant status of sows and their offspring, as well as the suckling piglets gut health gene expression. Several BPA volatile compounds were prenatal and postnatal maternally transferred (placental fluid and milk)., (© The Author(s) 2020. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the American Society of Animal Science. All rights reserved. For permissions, please e-mail: journals.permissions@oup.com.)

Objective: To determine the cis-atracurium pharmacokinetic data and laudanosine production of a single 1 mg kg -1 cis-atracurium dose in the pig and to compare the pharmacokinetics between two groups of different ages., Study Design: Prospective experimental study., Animals: Sixteen female pigs in two groups. Group A included eight animals aged 2.0-2.5 months and weighed 26.6 ± 3.6 kg. Group B included eight animals aged 4.0-5.0 months and weighed 57.4 ± 8.3 kg., Methods: The pigs were anaesthetized and monitored throughout the procedure. Arterial blood samples collected at 0, 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120 and 180 minutes after cis-atracurium injection were cooled and centrifuged. Plasma was acidified and stored at -20 °C for subsequent cis-atracurium and laudanosine analyses., Results: Anaesthetic parameters were within normal ranges throughout the procedure. Plasma cis-atracurium and laudanosine concentrations were measured for the 16 pigs. Elimination rate constant, elimination half-life, area under the curve, mean residence time, distribution volume and total clearance were calculated for each pig. Statistical differences (p < 0.05) in the elimination rate constant, elimination half-life, mean residence time and distribution volume values were observed between the two groups. Elimination half-life, mean residence time and distribution volume values were higher and elimination rate constant lower in younger pigs than in older pigs. No plasma laudanosine concentrations were detected in any pig., Conclusion and Clinical Relevance: Longer duration of plasma cis-atracurium concentrations were observed in younger pigs. Distribution volume was also higher in younger pigs. Conversely, total clearance and area under the curve were similar between the two age groups. No laudanosine production was detected, suggesting a different cis-atracurium metabolism in the pig compared with other species., (Copyright © 2019 Association of Veterinary Anaesthetists and American College of Veterinary Anesthesia and Analgesia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Intra-partum asphyxia is the most common non-infectious etiology limiting the performance of neonate piglets. Previous studies indicate caffeine (orally and subcutaneously) reverses the effects of intra-partum asphyxia in neonate piglets. In this study, there was investigation of whether use of a novel therapeutic protocol for administering caffeine subcutaneously to pregnant sows would improve the newborn piglets' vitality, physio-metabolic profiles and body weight gain. Sows were randomly divided into two groups (n = 10 each). Caffeine or NaCl 0.9% was administered 2 days pre-farrowing. Physio-metabolic profiles were measured using blood from the anterior vena cava. The vitality of piglets was evaluated immediately after birth. Piglets (n = 180) were weighed at birth and on days 7, 14 and 21 of lactation. Caffeine positively affected the vitality of the piglets, as indicated by greater vitality scores than that for the control group (8.72 ± 0.12 compared with 7.28 ± 0.16, P < 0.001). Metabolic values were similar between groups, but pO 2 values were greater in the piglets with greater vitality scores treated with caffeine (19.10 ± 0.82 compared with 14.49 ± 1.42, P < 0.01), indicating increased respiratory rates. Body weight gain at day 21 was greater in the piglets treated with caffeine that had greater vitality scores than the control piglets having greater vitality scores (6.87 ± 0.18 compared with 6.52 ± 0.25 kg, P < 0.05). Caffeine administration before birth improves the vitality and respiratory capacity of piglets, increasing their adaptation to extra-uterine environment., (Copyright © 2019. Published by Elsevier B.V.)

Selection of sows for large litter size has adverse consequences including lesser and more variable birth weights, reduced piglet viability and greater peri- and post-natal piglet mortality. One approach to improve survival might be to feed caffeine to the sow, which improves piglet viability after induced farrowing, but has not been evaluated in sows which farrow naturally. Large White x Landrace sows were fed 0 (CON: n = 30) or 6 g/day caffeine (CAF: n = 34) with their daily feed from 3 days before expected parturition until farrowing. Numbers of piglets born alive and stillborn, as well as piglet vitality and meconium staining score were recorded at birth. Piglet rectal temperature was measured at 3 and 24 h and piglet survival was recorded through lactation. Compared with CON animals, sows of the CAF group had longer gestations (CON: 115.6 ± 0.3 days; CAF: 116.6 ± 0.3 days, P = 0.01) and piglets of CAF sows had greater rectal temperatures 3 h after birth (CON: 37.6 ± 0.2 °C, CAF 38.0 ± 0.2 °C, P<0.05). Although there was no difference in the stillborn numbers per litter fewer CAF sows delivered stillborn piglets when compared to CON sows (CON: 43.3%, CAF: 20.6%, P = 0.05). Piglet survival to day 18 of lactation was not altered by treatment (CON: 90.4 ± 3.2%, CAF: 92.0 ± 2.4%, P>0.05). The current data suggest that maternal supplementation with caffeine is a promising treatment to prevent premature farrowing and increase piglet temperature at birth, and may decrease the incidence of litters with stillborn piglets., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

The objective of this study was to evaluate the effect of birth order on the physiological and metabolic responses of the newborn piglet the first hours after birth. A total of 281 randomly selected newborn piglets were included, classified according to birth order in 12 groups (L1-L12). The expulsion interval, neonatal vitality, latency in connecting to the maternal teat and physiological profile were recorded for each piglet. The number of piglets born alive and dead was also recorded. The blood gases, electrolytes and glucose levels of the neonates were obtained by means of an automatic blood gas and electrolyte analyzer. Groups L1, L2, L11, and L12 had the least score on the vitality scale, the longest expulsion intervals, and longest latency to connect with the maternal teat, as well as greater physiological alterations (hyperglycemia, hyperlactatemia and hypercapnia) compared to groups L4 to L9. Likewise, type-II stillbirths only occurred in the first and last quarter of the birth order of the litter. In conclusion, piglets born in the first and last quarter of the birth order of the litter had a greater risk of having physiological and behavioral alterations during farrowing., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Forty-five multiparous sows (Landrace × Yorkshire; parity: 3.58 ± 1.30) were used to determine the effects of three patterns of feed intake during early lactation on the performance of lactating sows. Experimental treatments were as follows: IFI-1.4, the amount of feed increased by 1.4 kg per day for the first 5 days post-farrowing, followed by ad libitum feeding until weaning; IFI-1.0, the amount of feed increased by 1.0 kg per day for the first 7 days post-farrowing, followed by ad libitum feeding until weaning; IFI-0.7, the amount of feed increased by 0.7 kg per day for the first 10 days post-farrowing, followed by ad libitum feeding until weaning. The number of live piglets at birth/litter in three dietary treatments was 11.50, 10.07, and 10.85, respectively. Sows in the IFI-1.4 treatment had lower backfat loss during lactation, greater daily feed intake during days 1-6, 7-12, and 1-24 compared with those in the IFI-0.7 treatment (p < .05). The litter weaning weight, litter weight gain, and average litter daily gain in the IFI-1.4 treatment were greater compared with those in the IFI-0.7 treatment (p < .05). In conclusion, the results indicated that the IFI-1.4 feed intake pattern allowed lactating sows and their litters to obtain optimal performance., (© 2018 Japanese Society of Animal Science.)

The successful performance of a swallow requires dynamic integration between a wide range of sensory inputs and muscle activities to produce the coordinated kinematics of oropharyngeal structures. Damage to the recurrent laryngeal nerve (RLN) produces dysphagia in infants, with food or liquid entering the airway despite this nerve having minimal direct sensory or motor connections to the act of swallowing, apart from vocal fold closure. Previous results have demonstrated that a complete RLN lesion disrupts both performance and kinematics before initiation of the pharyngeal swallow in infants. We tested the hypothesis that a RLN lesion produces changes in the normal activity of oral floor, tongue, and infrahyoid muscles during a swallow. We recorded swallowing in our validated infant pig model, with synchronous high-speed imaging and fine-wire, chronic electromyography. We found changes in the timing, duration, and amplitude of the motor pattern in an array of muscles that are supplied by several different cranial and cervical nerves. Some of these changes in muscle activity are associated with the preparatory aspects of bolus aggregation or movement and so occur before the pharyngeal swallow. Taken with previous biomechanical results, these patterns suggest an intricate brain stem sensorimotor integration that occurs as part of a swallow. In particular, the execution of oral motor function is changed as a result of this simple lesion. NEW & NOTEWORTHY Damage to the recurrent laryngeal nerve compromises swallowing despite an absent or minimal contribution to either the motor or sensory aspects of this function. This study documents EMG changes, following RLN lesion, to non-RLN innervated muscles that are active during swallowing in an infant model. Some of these muscles fire before the pharyngeal swallow and are associated with the preparatory aspects of bolus aggregation and movement, suggesting important sensorimotor integration at a brain stem level.

This study was conducted to evaluate the effects of dietary ratios of n-6:n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) on reproductive performance, fecal microbiota and nutrient digestibility of gestation-lactating sows and suckling piglets. Fifteen primiparous sows (Landrace × Yorkshire) were randomly allotted into three treatments. Fed diets contained different ratios of n-6:n-3 PUFA, including 20:1, 15:1 and 10:1. No differences were detected among the treatments for average daily feed intake (ADFI) of sows and the back fat levels during lactation (P > 0.05). Body weight (BW) loss of sows after farrowing to weanling was greater in the 10:1 treatment compared with 15:1 or 20:1 (P < 0.05). In piglets, a great significant difference for BW was observed at 4 weeks (P < 0.01). Furthermore, average daily gain (ADG) of piglets in the 10:1 treatment was higher (P < 0.05). No difference was observed among treatments in nutrient digestibility of sows (P > 0.05). A great significant difference for fecal microbiota was in the 10:1 treatment compared with 20:1 and 15:1 treatments (P < 0.01). In conclusion, altering the ratio of n-6:n-3 PUFA in gestation-lactating sow diet had no difference on nutrient digestibility in gestation-lactating sows, but it can partially improve reproductive performance., (© 2017 Japanese Society of Animal Science.)

Twelve lactating sows were used to evaluate the effects of reducing dietary crude protein (CP) (14% vs. 12%) and increasing neutral detergent fibre (NDF) levels (18% vs. 22%) on litter performance, total tract apparent digestibility and manure composition in a 4 × 4 latin square arrangement during a 36-day lactation period. Diets were isoenergetic (2.9 Mcal ME/kg) and had similar total lysine content (0.9%). In addition, a second aim was to compare a reference external marker method (Cr 2 O 3 ) with an internal feed marker [acid-insoluble ash (AIA)] for the calculation of apparent total tract digestibility of nutrients in lactating sows. The reduction of dietary CP level in lactating sows had no effect on either live-weight or backfat thickness or apparent total tract digestibility of nutrients. However, the piglets' average daily gain (ADG) was reduced in low dietary CP diets, which suggests that sows reduced milk production due to an underestimation of certain essential amino acid requirements (e.g. valine). The increase of dietary NDF level did not affect sow and litter performance. Nevertheless, the total tract apparent digestibility of organic matter, CP and carbohydrates was reduced, and ether extract digestion was increased in high NDF compared to normal NDF diets equally balanced for ME and lysine content. The coefficients of total tract apparent digestibility of nutrients in lactating sows were greater when using AIA compared to Cr 2 O 3 marker, regardless of dietary CP or NDF level, but their coefficients of variation were lower in the former than in the latter. In lactating sows, a trade-off between litter performance and nutrient digestion is established when reducing dietary CP or increasing NDF levels while maintaining similar lysine content through synthetic amino acids and balancing metabolizable energy through dietary fat sources., (Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition © 2016 Blackwell Verlag GmbH.)

Temporary confinement during parturition and early postpartum may provide an intermediary step preceding loose housing that offers improvement in sow and piglet welfare. Three experiments were conducted to investigate the implications of replacing farrowing crates (FCs) with an alternative housing system from 3 days postpartum until weaning. In each experiment sows farrowed in FCs and were randomly allocated at day 3 of lactation to either a FC or a pen with increased floor space (lactation pen (LP)) until weaning. In experiment 1, piglet growth and sow and piglet skin injuries were recorded for 32 sows and 128 focal piglets in these litters. Behaviour around nursing and piglet behavioural time budgets were also recorded for 24 of these litters (96 focal piglets for time budgets). In experiment 2, measures of skin injury and behavioural time budgets were conducted on 28 sows and 112 focal piglets. The behavioural response of sows to piglet vocalisation (maternal responsiveness test (MRT)) was also assessed. In experiment 3, piglet mortality from day 3 of lactation until weaning was recorded in 672 litters over 12 months. While housing did not affect piglet weight gain in experiment 1, or piglet skin injuries in experiments 1 or 2, sows in both experiments sustained more injuries in LP than FC (experiment 1, 2.9 v. 1.4; experiment 2, 2.5 v. 0.8 lesions/sow; P0.05). Thus, housing sows and litters in LP from day 3 of lactation minimises piglet mortality while improving maternal behaviour in sows and social behaviour in piglets.

In Exp. 1, 56 gestating sows (PIC 1050; 35 d postinsemination) were used in a 30-d trial to determine serum 25(OH)D response to increasing concentrations of dietary vitamin D. Sows were randomly allotted to 1 of 7 dietary D treatments (200, 800, 1,600, 3,200, 6,400, 12,800, or 25,600 IU of added D per kilogram of complete diet) with 8 sows per treatment. Increasing D increased (quadratic; < 0.001) serum 25(OH)D with the response depicted by the prediction equation: serum 25(OH)D, ng/mL = 35.1746 + (0.002353 × dietary D, IU/d) - (0.0000000156 × dietary D, IU/d). In Exp. 2, 112 sows and their litters were used to determine the effects of dietary vitamin D regimen on sow performance, subsequent preweaning pig performance, neonatal bone and muscle characteristics, and serum vitamin metabolites. Sows were allotted to 1 of 4 dietary treatments 3 to 5 d following breeding: 800, 2,000, or 9,600 IU of D per kilogram of the diet or 50 µg of 25(OH)D (2,000 IU of D equivalent from Hy-D, DSM Nutritional Products, Parsippany, NJ) per kilogram of diet. There were 25 to 27 sows per treatment. Increasing dietary D increased (linear, = 0.001) serum 25(OH)D of sows on d 100 of gestation, at farrowing, and at weaning. Increasing D in sow diets increased piglet serum 25(OH)D at birth (linear, = 0.001) and weaning (quadratic, = 0.033). Sows fed 50 µg of 25(OH)D/kg had intermediate ( < 0.004) serum 25(OH)D concentrations on d 100 of gestation, at farrowing, and at weaning compared with sows fed 2,000 IU of D/kg and sows fed 9,600 IU of D/kg. Pigs from sows fed 50 µg of 25(OH)D/kg had greater serum 25(OH)D compared with pigs from sows fed 2,000 IU of D/kg, but at weaning, serum 25(OH)D concentrations were similar. Also, pigs from sows fed 9,600 IU of D/kg had greater ( = 0.011) serum 25(OH)D at birth and weaning compared with pigs from sows fed 50 µg of 25(OH)D/kg. Maternal performance, litter characteristics, neonatal bone ash content, and neonatal muscle fiber characteristics were largely unaffected by the dietary vitamin D treatments. Overall, D and 25(OH)D are both useful at increasing serum 25(OH)D concentrations, but more D (on an equivalent IU basis) is needed to achieve similar serum 25(OH)D responses compared with feeding 25(OH)D. Concentration of maternal vitamin D supplementation in lactation impacted milk transfer of the vitamin more so than the form of the vitamin, as evidence by the weaned pig serum 25(OH)D concentrations.

A of subsample of 448 growing pigs (PIC 327 × 1050) weaned from 52 sows fed varying dietary vitamin D regimens were used in a split-plot design to determine the effects of maternal and nursery dietary vitamin D on growth performance. Sows were previously administered diets containing vitamin D as vitamin D (800, 2,000, or 9,600 IU/kg) or as 25(OH)D (50 µg [or 2,000 IU vitamin D equivalent]/kg from HyD; DSM Nutritional Products, Parsippany, NJ). Once weaned, pigs were allotted to pens on the basis of previous maternal vitamin D treatment, and then pens were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 nursery vitamin D dietary regimens (2,000 IU of vitamin D/kg or 50 µg 25(OH)D/kg). Pigs remained on nursery vitamin D treatments for 35 d, and then they were provided common finishing diets until market (135 kg). Growing pig serum 25(OH)D suggested that maternal dietary vitamin D influenced ( < 0.001 at weaning) serum concentrations early after weaning, but nursery vitamin D regimen had a larger impact ( < 0.001) on d 17 and 35 postweaning. Overall growth performance was not influenced by nursery vitamin D dietary treatments. From d 0 to 35 in the nursery, pigs from sows fed increasing vitamin D had increased (quadratic, < 0.003) ADG and ADFI, but G:F was similar regardless of maternal vitamin D regimen. Also, pigs from sows fed 50 µg/kg of 25(OH)D had increased ( = 0.002) ADG compared with pigs weaned from sows fed 800 IU of vitamin D. Throughout finishing (d 35 postweaning until 135 kg), ADG was increased (quadratic, = 0.005) and G:F was improved (quadratic, = 0.049) with increasing maternal dietary vitamin D. Also, pigs from sows fed 50 µg/kg of 25(OH)D had increased ( = 0.002) ADG compared with pigs weaned from sows fed 800 IU of vitamin D. Carcass data were collected from a subsample population separate from that used for the growth performance portion of the study, and a total of 642 carcasses from progeny of sows fed the varying dietary vitamin D treatments were used. Live BW of pigs at marketing and HCW were heavier ( < 0.030) for pigs from sows previously fed 25(OH)D compared with pigs from sows fed 9,600 IU of vitamin D. Overall, pigs from sows fed 2,000 IU of vitamin D grew faster after weaning compared with pigs from sows fed 800 or 9,600 IU of vitamin D. Pigs from sows fed 25(OH)D hag greater ADG compared with pigs from sows fed 800 IU of vitamin D, and they had increased final BW and HCW compared with pigs from sows fed 9,600 IU of vitamin D.

The present study consists of two experiments. In experiment 1, a total of 120 weaned piglets (Yorkshire × Landrace) (7.3 ± 1.9 kg) were allocated to five treatments, and four replications (pens) with six piglets/pen. In experiment 2, 40 male pigs (23.0 ± 2.2 kg) were allocated to five treatments and eight replications (individual pens). In both experiments, the control diet contained fish meal (FM) as the sole protein supplement (CPH0), while the experimental diets consisted of four different diets in which crude protein (CP) from FM in CPH0 was replaced by the CP from catfish (Pangasius hypophthalmus) by-product protein hydrolyzate (CPH) at four different levels: 100 % (CPH100), 75 % (CPH75), 50 % (CPH50) and 25 % (CPH25). The results in experiment 1 showed that the highest average daily gain (ADG) over the 5-week period after weaning was recorded for piglets on CPH100 (307 g/day), and the lowest for piglets fed CPH0 (287 g/day) (P < 0.01). Feed conversion ratio (FCR) was lower in CPH100 (1.43 kg feed/kg gain) than in CPH0 (1.51 kg feed/kg gain) (P < 0.01). The piglets fed CPH100 were less affected by diarrhoea (6.55 %) than piglets fed the control diet CPH0 (17.3 %) after weaning, and faecal scores were also lower. In experiment 2, ADG was lowest in CPH0, and the cost/gain in pigs fed CPH100 was lowest in both weaning and growing pigs. In conclusion, it is possible to replace up to 100 % of the FM by CPH in diets for weaning and growing pigs, resulting in improved ADG and FCR, lower feed cost/gain as well as reduced diarrhoea incidence and improved faecal score.

Birth weight (BiW) of pigs is a commonly used predictor of postnatal performance; however, it has been suggested that morphological measurements may be more reflective of the intrauterine environment and thus better predictors of postnatal growth. The aim of this study was to determine 1) whether morphological measurements, including ponderal index (PI), body mass index (BMI), and abdominal circumference (AC), could be used as predictors of postnatal performance and 2) if so, would they be better predictors than BiW and 3) would the same predictors apply to pigs of different BiW at different stages of their growth? Morphological measurements, BiW, and BW at d 28 and 70 were available for 731 pigs from experiments conducted over a 2-yr period. A series of linear models was used to determine predictors that affected growth performance from birth to d 28 and from d 28 to 70. For both light (LBiW; ≤1.25 kg) and normal BiW pigs (NBiW; 1.60 to 2.00 kg), BiW was not the best predictor of performance ( > 0.05); different variables for the growth periods considered applied to pigs with different BiW. For LBiW pigs BMI ( < 0.001) and AC ( = 0.0202) were the best predictors for d 1 to 28, and AC ( = 0.0317) and PI ( = 0.0450) were the best predictors from d 28 to 70, with pigs with a larger AC and higher PI/BMI more likely to have higher ADG pre- or postweaning. In contrast, the best predictor variables for NBiW pigs were AC ( = 0.0482) for d 1 to 28 and crown-rump length (CRL; = 0.0138) for d 28 to 70. Focusing on LBiW pigs with low ADG, BMI was the best predictor ( < 0.05) of growth for pre and postweaning, whereas for LBiW pigs with high ADG the best predictors were AC ( = 0.00132) from d 1 to 28 and BiW ( = 0.00601) from d 28 to 70, with increasing BMI, AC, and BiW associated with greater ADG. For NBiW pigs with high preweaning ADG, the best predictor consisted solely of AC ( 0.0210), but no morphological predictor variables were significant for NBiW pigs with low preweaning ADG. For d 28 to 70, the best predictor for NBiW pigs with low ADG was CRL ( = 0.0171), but for high ADG no predictor variables were significant. The present study showed that the morphology of piglets is more important than BiW when predicting the postnatal growth of pigs; however, which measurement is the most important depends on both the BiW and stage of growth. For small-sized pigs, these morphological measures may be considered as a decision-making tool by farmers when trying to identify potential poor performers.

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of sow confinement and nonconfinement during parturition and early lactation on the performance of sows and piglets prior to weaning. Sows and their litters were housed in either a conventional farrowing crate (control; 1.7 × 2.4 m) or a swing-sided pen (2.8 × 2.15 m). Sows housed in the swing-sided pen had the crate open (open) or closed (closed) during farrowing and opened on d 3 (LAC3) or 7 (LAC7) of lactation. Data are means ± SEM. The numbers of total and live-born piglets were not different between treatments and averaged 13.1 ± 0.4 and 12.3 ± 0.2 piglets/litter, respectively. Sows housed in a farrowing crate had a greater ( = 0.03) number of stillborn piglets compared with open sows from pens (1.1 ± 0.2 vs. 0.6 ± 0.1 piglets/litter, respectively). Live-born piglet mortality before litter equalization on d 1 was greater ( < 0.01) for open sows compared with closed and control sows (1.6 ± 0.2 vs. 0.9 ± 0.2 vs. 1.1 ± 0.1 piglets/litter, respectively) and was largely explained by an increase in the incidence of piglets overlain ( < 0.01) in the open compared to closed and control sows (1.3 ± 0.1 vs. 0.5 ± 0.1 vs. 0.8 ± 0.1 piglets/litter, respectively). Overlay mortality between d 3 and 7 of lactation was greater ( = 0.03) in LAC3 sows compared to LAC7 and control sows (0.4 ± 0.1 vs. 0.2 ± 0.1 vs. 0.2 ± 0.1 piglets/litter, respectively). Treatment did not affect either the incidence or cause of piglet mortality after d 7 of lactation ( > 0.05). Total live-born piglet mortality from birth until weaning for the control, closedLAC7, closedLAC3, openLAC7, and openLAC3 was 1.86 ± 0.19, 1.95 ± 0.23, 2.10 ± 0.39, 2.45 ± 0.27, and 3.74 ± 0.48, piglets/litter, respectively. Total live-born piglet mortality from birth until weaning was greater in the openLAC3 and openLAC7 treatments compared to control ( < 0.01), and openLAC3 was also greater than openLAC7, closedLAC3, and closedLAC7 ( < 0.01). The current data indicated that reducing sow confinement during parturition decreased stillborn number but increased live-born piglet mortality compared to a farrowing crate, and removing confinement on d 3 of lactation further increased total piglet mortality compared to removing sow confinement on d 7 of lactation in sows that farrowed open. Sows that were confined during farrowing and until d 3 or 7 of lactation in a swing-sided pen had a similar piglet mortality compared to those in a farrowing crate.

This study investigated the hypothesis that dietary supplementation of fish oil as a source of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) influences the expression of target genes of sterol regulatory element-binding proteins (SREBP)-1 and (SREBP)-2 involved in triacylglycerol (TAG) synthesis and fatty acid and cholesterol metabolism in the liver, and moreover activates the expression of target genes of peroxisome proliferation-activated receptor (PPAR)-α involved in TAG and fatty acid catabolism in liver and skeletal muscle. Twenty lactating sows were fed a control diet or a fish oil diet with either 50 g of a mixture of palm oil and soya bean oil (4:1, w/w) or fish oil per kg. The diet of the fish oil group contained 19.1 g of n-3 PUFA (mainly 20:5 n-3 and 22:6 n-3) per 100 g of total fatty acids, while the diet of the control group contained 2.4 g of n-3 PUFA (mainly 18:3 n-3) per 100 g of total fatty acids. The fish oil group had reduced relative mRNA concentrations of various target genes of SREBP-1 involved in fatty acid and TAG synthesis in comparison with the control group (p < 0.05). Relative mRNA concentrations of target genes of PPARα involved in fatty acid catabolism in both liver and muscle, and mRNA concentrations of target genes of SREBP-2 involved in cholesterol synthesis and uptake were not influenced by fish oil supplementation. Concentrations of cholesterol and TAG in plasma, fat content of milk and weight gains of litters during the suckling period were not different between the two groups of sows. In conclusion, this study suggests that fish oil has only minor effects on hepatic lipid metabolism, which are non-critical with respect to milk production in sows., (Journal of Animal Physiology and Animal Nutrition © 2015 Blackwell Verlag GmbH.)

It has been documented that floor heating of the farrowing area in loose housed sows improves survival of piglets significantly. However, today, the majority of farrowing pens are designed with crating of sows and slatted floor at the birth site. The aim of this study was to investigate whether providing radiant heat at the birth site to new-born piglets in pens with crated sows reduced hypothermia, time to first milk intake and growth of the piglets during the 1(st) week. Second parity Danish Landrace×Yorkshire sows (n=36) were randomly divided into two groups: Control (CG) and heat (HG). In the area behind the sow (zone 1), two radiant heat panels were mounted above the slatted floor in the HG. The farrowings were attended, and the heaters were turned on at birth of first piglet and turned off 12 h after. Birth time, time to leave zone 1, time to first contact with udder and time to first suckling were registered by direct observation. The piglet's rectal temperature (RT) was measured 15, 30, 60, 120, 180, 240 min after birth and 12, 14 and 24 h after birth of first piglet. Piglets were weighed at birth, 24 and 48 h and 7 days after birth. Data were analysed in a mixed model in SAS. The drop in RT was lower in HG compared with CG (P=0.002), and the RT in HG remained higher than in CG from 30 to 240 min after birth (P<0.05), whereas no difference was found at 12 h after birth of first piglet (P=0.92). Piglets in HG stayed longer in zone 1 than those in CG (P=0.01), whereas time to reach udder (P=0.35) and to first suckling (P=0.56) did not differ. No difference in weight gain was found between piglets in HG and CG at 24 h (P=0.23), 48 h (P=0.28) and 7 days after birth (P=0.44). Birth weight had a positive effect on RT (P<0.001) and reduced time to leave zone 1 (P<0.01), reach udder (P<0.001) and time to first suckling (P<0.001). The results showed that radiant heating behind the sows reduced hypothermia in new-born piglets and indicate that providing heat during the first half hour after birth is important.

Two experiments were carried out in Paraná State, Brazil, to evaluate the nutritional value of passion fruit seed meal (PFM) and to study the effect of PFM on growth performance, carcass, and blood characteristics in starter pigs (Topigs 20 × Tybor). In experiment 1, 25 castrated males, averaging 19.1-kg body weight, were individually fed in a completely randomized block design, consisting of five treatments and five replicates and an experimental period that lasted 14 days. In experiment 2, a total of 60 pigs (30 females and 30 castrated males) were distributed in a randomized block design with five treatments, six replications, and two animals per experimental unit and 90 days of experimentation. For both experiments, the same PFM inclusion rates were used in the experimental diets, namely, 0, 4, 8, 12, and 16 %. The metabolizable energy of PFM was estimated to be 15.0 MJ/kg. Inclusion of PFM at any level did not affect average daily gain, daily feed intake, feed/gain ratio, backfat thickness, loin depth, and plasma or blood components. It is concluded that passion fruit seed meal for swine in the starting phase can be added at a rate of up to 16 % in the diet without any negative effects on growth performance, carcass, and blood characteristics in starter commercial line pigs.

A novel ultraviolet light irradiation (UV-C, 254 nm) process was designed as an additional safety feature for manufacturing of spray dried porcine plasma (SDPP). In Exp. 1, three 10-L batches of bovine plasma were inoculated with 10(5.2 ± 0.12) tissue culture infectious dose 50 (TCID50) of porcine parvovirus (PPV) per mL of plasma and subjected to UV-C ranging from 0 to 9180 J/L. No viable PPV was detected in bovine plasma by micro-titer assay in SK6 cell culture after UV-C at 2295 J/L. In Exp. 2, porcine plasma was subjected to UV-C (3672 J/L), then spray dried and mixed in complete mash diets. Diets were a control without SDPP (Control), UV-C SDPP either at 3% (UVSDPP3) or 6% (UVSDPP6) and non-UV-C SDPP at 3% (SDPP3) or 6% (SDPP6). Diets were fed ad libitum to 320 weaned pigs (26 d of age; 16 pens/diet; 4 pigs/pen) for 14 d after weaning and a common diet was fed d 15 to 28. During d 0 to 14, pigs fed UVSDPP3, UVSDPP6, or SDPP6 had higher (P < 0.05) weight gain and feed intake than control. During d 0 to 28, pigs fed UVSDPP3 and UVSDPP6 had higher (P < 0.05) weight gain and feed intake than control and SDPP3, and SDPP6 had higher (P < 0.05) feed intake than control. Also, pigs fed UVSDPP had higher (P < 0.05) weight gain than pigs fed SDPP. In conclusion, UV-C inactivated PPV in liquid plasma and UVSDPP used in pig feed had no detrimental effects on pig performance.

Efficient sperm production in boars has developmental and functional components. Factors affecting the developmental phase influence Sertoli cell mitosis, appear to be mostly stimulatory and have permanent effects on production of sperm. Birthweight appears to hold promise as a prospective screening tool as it appears to have a strong positive relationship with adult sperm production. Strategic cross-fostering shortly after birth and socialization to humans between 4 and 9 weeks of age are strategies during the developmental phase that have been shown to increase spermatogenesis in adults. Factors affecting the functional phase influence the release of sperm by Sertoli cells and their subsequent maturation in the epididymi, appear to be mainly inhibitory and have temporary effects on spermatogenesis which can be corrected. The most common of these include exposure to elevated ambient temperature, nutrition, photoperiod, collection frequency and housing. Multiple deficiencies in several of these areas are common in commercial studs and have additive, negative effects on sperm production. However, there also is evidence that enhancements in one of these areas may be capable of offsetting deficiencies in others., (© 2015 Blackwell Verlag GmbH.)

Our objectives were 1) to compare reproductive performance across parity and lifetime performance in sow groups categorized by the number of pigs born alive (PBA) in parity 1 and 2) to examine the factors associated with more PBA in parity 1. We analyzed 476,816 parity records and 109,373 lifetime records of sows entered into 125 herds from 2008 to 2010. Sows were categorized into 4 groups based on the 10th, 50th, and 90th percentiles of PBA in parity 1 as follows: 7 pigs or fewer, 8 to 11 pigs, 12 to 14 pigs, and 15 pigs or more. Generalized linear models were applied to the data. For reproductive performance across parity, sows that had 15 or more PBA in parity 1 had 0.5 to 1.8 more PBA in any subsequent parity than the other 3 PBA groups ( P< 0.05). In addition, they had 2.8 to 5.4% higher farrowing rates in parities 1 through 3 than sows that had 7 or fewer PBA (P < 0.05). However, there were no differences between the sow PBA groups for weaning-to-first-mating interval in any parity (P ≥ 0.37). For lifetime performance, sows that had 15 or more PBA in parity 1 had 4.4 to 26.1 more lifetime PBA than sows that had 14 or fewer PBA (P < 0.05). Also, for sows that had 14 or fewer PBA in parity 1, those that were first mated at 229 d old (25th percentile) or earlier had 2.9 to 3.3 more lifetime PBA than those first mated at 278 d old (75th percentile) or later (P < 0.05). Factors associated with fewer PBA in parity 1 were summer mating and lower age of gilts at first mating (AFM; P < 0.05) but not reservice occurrences (P = 0.34). Additionally, there was a 2-way interaction between mated month groups and AFM for PBA in parity 1 (P < 0.05); PBA in parity 1 sows mated from July to December increased nonlinearly by 0.3 to 0.4 pigs when AFM increased from 200 to 310 d old (P < 0.05). However, the same rise in AFM had no significant effect on the PBA of sows mated between January and June (P ≥ 0.17). In conclusion, high PBA in parity 1 can be used to predict that a sow will have high reproductive performance and lifetime performance. Also, the data indicate that the upper limit of AFM for mating between July and December should be 278 d old.

The aim of the present study was to estimate the concurrent impact of sow and litter characteristics on sow productivity. Sow productivity was defined as colostrum yield (CY), onset of lactation (the time point when milk secretion increased steeply, approximately 31 h postpartum), transition milk yield (MY; 36-60 h postpartum), and the mean MY in wk 1 to 4 of lactation. Therefore, the study investigated how factors related with sow nutrition, litter characteristics, farrowing characteristics, and composition of mammary secreta affected sow productivity. Data obtained from 5 previous sow experiments were used. The variables describing sow productivity were all defined as dependent variables and Pearson coefficient of correlation was used to examine relations among dependent variables. The results showed that CY was positively correlated with transition MY and MY in wk 1 and 2 of lactation (P < 0.05), and time for onset of lactation was positively correlated with transition MY (P < 0.05) but negatively correlated with MY in wk 1, 2, and 4 of lactation (P < 0.05). Multivariate regression analyses with a backward elimination approach were performed for each dependent variable to investigate relations with characteristics of sow nutrition, litter size, farrowing, and composition of mammary secreta (independent variables). Litter size was positively related with both CY and MY in wk 1 to 4 (P < 0.001). Milk protein concentration was negatively correlated with MY in all 4 wk (P < 0.01), which indicated that high yielding sows were unable to maintain milk protein synthesis during lactation. Additionally, mean intake of ME prepartum ( < 0.05) was included in the regression model for transition MY and the BW of the sow on d 3 was included in the regression model for MY in wk 1 ( P< 0.05). Except litter equlization, none of the observed independent variables were related with time for onset of lactation. In conclusion, when maximizing sow productivity in the future, it may be rewarding to pay attention to sow productivity in the colostrum period and around time for onset of lactation, and special attention should be given to dietary supplies of protein and essential AA.

Piglet survival is the outcome of complex interactions between the sow, the piglet and their environment. In order to facilitate nest-building and to provide a suitable environment for the newborn piglets, a strategic method to supply loose housed sows with large quantities of straw at farrowing has been developed by Swedish piglet-producing farmers. The objectives of this cohort study were to use post-mortem findings to assess the causes of death and to quantify the effect of a large quantity of straw provided before farrowing compared to limited small daily amounts on stillbirths, post-mortem findings in piglets dying within 5 days after birth and the pre-weaning mortality. On each of four commercial piglet-producing farms in South-West Sweden, one batch of sows was studied during two consecutive lactations. At inclusion, sows were randomly assigned to two treatment groups, and sows remaining in the batch during the next lactation switched treatment group. In the STRAW group (n=181 litters) sows were provided with 15-20 kg of chopped straw 2 days prior to the calculated date of farrowing. Sows in the CONTROL group (n=182 litters) received 0.5-1 kg of chopped straw on a daily basis plus about 2 kg for nest-building when the stockperson judged the sow to be about to farrow. After onset of farrowing, additionally 1-2 kg was given. Post-mortem examination was performed in all piglets that died within 5 days after birth (n=798). The three major post-mortem findings were starvation (34%) crushing by the sow (28%), and enteritis (24%). In conclusion, strategic use of large quantities of straw reduced the number of stillborn piglets per litter by 27% (p=0.007). Under the conditions studied, the pre-weaning mortality of liveborn piglets was not affected by treatment; however, the distribution of post-mortem findings differed with fewer piglets dying due to starvation and more due to crushing and enteritis in STRAW litters., (Copyright © 2015 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Crossbreeding studies between Meishan (MS) and Large White (LW) pigs have illustrated that increased piglet growth before weaning is attributed to the maternal genotype of LW dams. The objective of this study was to determine the contributions of the maternal uterine environment (MUE), piglet genotype (PigG), piglet age (PA), and their interactions on piglet growth, lactation performance, milk composition, and piglet blood profiles during lactation following reciprocal embryo transfers between MS and White crossbred (WC) gilts. Twenty-five successful pregnancies were generated by embryo transfer in 2 farrowing years representing all MUE × PigG combinations: MS × MS (n = 4 litters), MS × WC (n = 7 litters), WC × MS (n = 7 litters), and WC × WC (n = 7 litters). At d 1 and 10 and at weaning, piglets (n = 147, n = 96, and n = 94, respectively) were weighed and blood samples were collected and measured for hematocrit, hemoglobin, glucose, nitrogen, NEFA, albumin, lactate, and cortisol. In addition, sows were manually milked from a medial mammary gland to determine milk composition. All data were analyzed by ANOVA using MIXED model procedures with the fixed effects of MUE, PigG, PA, and their interactions. Piglet weight was greater (P < 0.001) in piglets from WC dams compared to MS dams at d 10 and weaning but not at d 1. In addition, ADG were greater (P < 0.05) from piglets from WC dams compared to MS dams throughout lactation. However, milk composition was greater (P < 0.05) for GE and fat content from MS dams compared to WC dams, illustrating differences in milk quality between the breeds. There were significant MUE × PigG × PA interactions for hematocrit and hemoglobin levels in which greater (P < 0.001) levels were observed in MS piglets, irrespective of MUE, at d 1 of lactation and in MS piglets from MS dams at d 10 of lactation. Blood glucose was greater (P = 0.01) at d 1 in piglets from WC dams regardless of PigG but, at weaning, glucose was greater (P = 0.01) in WC piglets regardless of MUE. Serum NEFA levels were greater (P = 0.02) in piglets from MS dams throughout the lactation period. This study demonstrated that WC dams were superior to MS dams for piglet growth during lactation, in agreement with previous crossbreeding studies. However, blood components measured displayed complex interactions between the piglet and maternal breed, which signify possible mechanisms for improved preweaning survivability but slower lactational growth of MS piglets.

Polyamines are necessary for normal integrity and the restitution after injury of the gastrointestinal epithelium. The objective of this study was to investigate the effects of oral administration of putrescine and proline during the suckling period on epithelial restitution after early weaning in piglets. Eighteen neonatal piglets (Duroc × Landrace × Large Yorkshire) from 3 litters (6 piglets per litter) were assigned to 3 groups, representing oral administration with an equal volume of saline (control), putrescine (5 mg/kg BW), and proline (25 mg/kg BW) twice daily from d 1 to weaning at 14 d of age. Plasma and intestinal samples were obtained 3 d after weaning. The results showed that oral administration of putrescine or proline increased the final BW and ADG of piglets compared with the control (P < 0.05). Proline treatment decreased plasma D-lactate concentration but increased the villus height in the jejunum and ileum, as well as the percentage of proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA) positive cells and alkaline phosphatase (AKP) activity in the jejunal mucosa (P < 0.05). The protein expressions for zonula occludens (ZO-1), occludin, and claudin-3 (P < 0.05) but not mRNA were increased in the jejunum of putrescine- and proline-treated piglets compared with those of control piglets. The voltage-gated K+ channel (Kv) 1.1 protein expression in the jejunum of piglets administrated with putrescine and the Kv1.5 mRNA and Kv1.1 protein levels in the ileum of piglets administrated with proline were greater than those in control piglets (P < 0.05). These findings indicate that polyamine or its precursor could improve mucosal proliferation, intestinal morphology, as well as tight junction and potassium channel protein expressions in early-weaned piglets, with implications for epithelial restitution and barrier function after stress injury.

Thirty-two sows were allocated to four treatments to evaluate the effect of dietary star anise (SA) supplementation during gestation and lactation on the lactational performance of sows. At 85 days of gestation, sows were randomly allotted to one of two diets supplemented with 0.5% SA or basal diet. After farrowing, sows were further allotted to one of two lactation diets supplemented with 0.5% SA or basal diet. On a weekly basis, body weight (BW) of sows and piglets was measured. Blood and milk samples were obtained from the sows and piglets. Number of days from weaning to estrus, milk yield and feed intake were also recorded. Weight gain of piglets from sows fed the SA-supplemented diet during lactation was greater between days 7 and 14, days 14 and 21 and the overall experimental period compared with control groups. Supplementation of SA during lactation improved weaning weight of piglets, milk yield and average daily feed intake (ADFI) of sows. The SA diet increased concentrations of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) in ordinary milk and prolactin (PRL) in serum of sows. In conclusion, this study has indicated the beneficial effects of dietary SA addition in improving the lactation performance of sows., (© 2014 Japanese Society of Animal Science.)

The aim of this study was to identify parameters that may be used as objective measures of wellbeing in weaner pigs on farm. Eighty-six weaner pigs were categorized into 3 groups based on their BCS: very compromised (VC, BCS = 1), moderately compromised (MC, BCS = 2), or healthy (HY, BCS ≥ 3). Nonphysiological and physiological measures were then collected from the pigs. Nonphysiological measures included 3 subjective binary scores that assessed the activity, hairiness, and responsiveness of each pig. Physiological measures included rectal temperature, skin temperature, and 11 blood-based parameters. Each physiological measure was assessed in a ternary manner, with pigs being classed as being above, below, or within the normal physiological range. Fisher’s exact tests (FET) were used to identify differences between the numbers of pigs in each BCS category for each variable, and ANOVA of physiological measures was also conducted. Correlations between all variables were also conducted. The FET results identified significant differences for 8 of the measures, with activity, hairiness, responsiveness, rectal temperature, and blood concentrations of glucose, creatinine kinase (CK), albumin, and globulin all differing significantly (all P < 0.05) according to category. Rectal temperature, glucose, and globulin concentrations were significantly different in ANOVA analyses. Of these measures, there were significant correlations between hairiness, rectal temperature, and glucose (all R > 0.30 and P < 0.05). Based on these results, rectal temperature, glucose, and hairiness all warrant further investigation as simple to apply, on-farm measures that can be used in conjunction with body condition and subjective assessment to aid management decisions on pig welfare.

A total of 180 nursery pigs (PIC 327 × 1050; initially 12.6 kg) were used in an 18-d study to determine the effects of pellet mill conditioning parameters and feed form on pig performance. All diets were similar, and different feed processing parameters were used to create experimental treatments. Factors considered were conditioning time (15, 30, or 60 s) and feed form (mash or pelleted). To remove the confounding factor of feed form, pelleted samples were reground to a similar particle size as the mash diet. Treatments included: 1) mash diet without thermal processing (negative control), 2) pelleted diet conditioned for 30 s (positive control), 3) pelleted diet conditioned for 15 s and reground, 4) pelleted diet conditioned for 30 s and reground, and 5) pelleted diet conditioned for 60 s and reground. Pigs were weaned and fed a common acclimation diet for 21 d before the start of the experiment. Growth and feed disappearance were then measured for 18 d. All diets had similar levels of percentage total starch, but thermally processed diets had a 1.67 to 1.87-fold increase in percentage gelatinized starch compared to the mash diet. Average daily gain and G:F did not differ between treatments overall, but pigs fed the positive control pelleted diet had decreased ADFI ( < 0.05) compared to pigs fed all other diets. Preplanned contrasts revealed that pigs fed mash diets tended to have greater ADG ( < 0.10) compared to those fed pelleted and reground diets. This suggests that processing may have had a negative influence on feed utilization, which is further supported by the finding that pigs fed mash diets tended to have greater ADG ( < 0.10) compared to those fed diets that were thermally processed, regardless of regrinding. Considering these results, it was not surprising that pigs fed mash diets had greater ADG and ADFI ( < 0.05) than those fed pelleted diets. When directly comparing diets conditioned at 60 rpm, fed either as whole pellets or reground to mash consistency, pigs fed pelleted diets had improved G:F ( < 0.05) due to lower ADFI ( < 0.05) but similar ADG. The expected improvement in G:F from pelleting (6.8%) was observed but lost when diets were reground to near original mash particle size. This may indicate that diet form from the actual pelleting process impacts G:F more than conditioner retention time.

Thirty-six healthy piglets (weighing 10 ± 1 kg; three animals per pen) were randomly allocated to two treatments: (i) a low protein diet (14% crude protein [CP]) supplemented with lysine, methionine, threonine and tryptophan (Group LP) and (ii) a normal protein diet (20% CP, Group NP), resulting in six replicate pens per treatment. One piglet from each pen was slaughtered at days 10, 25 and 45 of the experiment. For the whole experimental period of 45 d, Group LP had lower feed intake and daily gain and a higher feed-to-gain ratio compared with Group NP. At day 10, no effects on measured caecum metabolites were observed, but at days 25 and 45 in Group LP the concentration of ammonia-N, cadaverine, branched chain fatty acids and acetate were reduced. This was also true for the concentration of short chain fatty acids at day 45. The results of denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis showed that microbial diversity in Group LP was less abundant at day 25, but there was no difference at days 10 and 45. An unweighted pair group mean average analysis showed that the similarities were lower between Groups LP and NP at day 10 and higher at days 25 and 45. Quantitation results indicated that the numbers of Firmicutes and Clostridium cluster IV were lower in Group LP than in Group NP at day 25, but there were no differences at days 10 and 45. In conclusion, the low protein diet markedly reduced the metabolites of protein and carbohydrate fermentation and altered microbial communities in the caecal digesta of piglets.

Polyphenol-rich plant products as feed supplements have been shown to exert beneficial effects on feed efficiency in piglets. However, tannins as components of polyphenol-rich plant products are able to reduce the absorption of various trace elements. The present study investigated the effect of two polyphenol-rich dietary supplements, grape seed and grape marc meal extract (GME) and spent hops (SH), on iron (Fe), zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) status in piglets supplied adequately with those trace elements. A trial with three groups of piglets which received a Control diet or the same diet supplemented with either 1% GME or 1% SH over a period of 4 weeks was performed. Concentrations of Fe, Zn and Cu in plasma, total iron binding capacity and saturation of transferrin in plasma did not differ between the three groups. Piglets fed the diet supplemented with SH showed no differences in the concentrations of Fe, Zn and Cu in the liver in comparison to the Control group. Piglets fed the diets supplemented with GME showed slightly lower concentrations of Zn and Cu in the liver than Control piglets (p < 0.05); however, concentrations of both elements remained in the physiological range. Overall, this study shows that the polyphenol-rich plant products GME and SH had marginal effect on the status of Fe, Zn and Cu in piglets.

To determine the transient effects of weaning on the small intestine, 16 piglets were slaughtered at days 0, 1, 4 and 7 after weaning. Jejunal samples were collected to examine different enzyme activities and mRNA expressions of two stress protein families, namely, heat-shock proteins (HSP) and trefoil factors (TFF). Results showed that the activities of ceruloplasmin, alkaline phosphatase and lactate dehydrogenase, were significantly changed at Day 1 and/or Day 4. The mRNA expressions of HSP10, HSP60 and HSP90 showed a pattern of increased expression with time after weaning. Expression significantly differed between Day 0 and Day 7 after weaning. The mRNA expression of HSP70 was significantly increased on Day 1 only. Similarly, the mRNA expressions of TFF1 and TFF2 were significantly increased on Day 7 compared with those on Day 0. Expression of TFF3 was not affected by time after weaning. In conclusion, the present study indicated that weaning induced transient injury to small intestinal morphology and function. Particularly it changed enzyme activities and gene expression of stress proteins in the small intestine of piglets. At first time, a change in the gene expression of HSP10 and a gene overexpression of TFF1 in the small intestine of piglets after weaning was found.

Sixteen female piglets (58 d of age, 16.8 ± 0.8 kg body weight [BW]) were assigned to two groups (n = 8) and received until day 100 of age (50.3 ± 1.2 kg BW) ad libitum either a diet with a standard (diet C) or low (diet L) total phosphorus (P) content (5.38 and 4.23 g/kg, respectively). Diet C was supplemented with mineral P (1.15 g/kg) and did not contain microbial phytase. Diet L did not contain any inorganic P but 750 FTU/kg of microbial phytase. Despite these treatments, both diets were composed with the same ingredients. Body mineralisation of each gilt was assessed by determining the bone mineral content (BMC), area bone mineral density (BMD) by the dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) at days 58, 72, 86 and 100 of age. Feeding diet L caused a higher P digestibility (p = 0.008) measured from days 72 to 86 of age and at 100 days of age a higher BMC and BMD (p ≤ 0.01). Furthermore, the gilts of group L deposited more minerals in the body than control pigs (by 2.4 g/d, p = 0.008). It was found that BMD and BMC were positively correlated with body lean mass and digestible P intake. The results indicated that, even for very young pigs, the addition of microbial phytase instead of inorganic P increases the amount of digestible P covering the requirements of piglets for proper bone mineralisation. Furthermore, it was proved that the DXA method can be successfully applied to measure body fat and lean mass contents as well as bone mineralisation of growing pigs using the same animals.

Lysozyme is a 1,4-β-N-acetylmuramidase that has antimicrobial properties. The objective of this study was to determine the effect of lysozyme and antibiotics on growth performance and immune response during an indirect immune challenge. Two replicates of 600 pigs each were weaned from the sow at 26 d of age, blocked by litter and sex, and then randomly assigned to 1 of 24 pens in either a nursery room that had been fully disinfected or a nursery room left unclean since the previous group of pigs. Within a room, pigs were randomly assigned to either control diets (2 phase nursery regime), control diets + antibiotics (chlortetracycline/tiamulin hydrogen fumarate), or control diets + lysozyme (100 mg/kg diet). Pig weights and feed disappearance were measured and blood was collected on d 0, 14, and 28 of treatment. A group of 20 pigs were killed at 24 d of age for initial body composition analysis and 10 pigs of median weight were killed per diet room combination for body composition analysis after 28 d of treatment. Control + antibiotics and control + lysozyme-fed pigs grew at a faster rate for the 28-d study compared to control pigs (318 ± 14,320 ± 15 vs. 288 ± 15 g/d, respectively; P < 0.05), regardless of nursery environment (P > 0.05). The indirect immune challenge did not alter growth performance from d 0 to 14 of treatment but decreased ADG from d 14 to 28 of the study (415 ± 15 vs. 445 ± 13 g/d ;: P < 0.05). Feed intake was not altered by the nursery environment (P > 0.61) or dietary treatments (P > 0.10), but feed efficiency was worsened by the indirect immune challenge (P < 0.05) and improved by both control + antibiotics and control + lysozyme diets (P < 0.01). The immune challenge did not alter nutrient accretion (P > 0.25), but both control + antibiotics and control + lysozyme pigs had decreased accretion of whole-body lipid (P < 0.01) and increased accretion of protein (P < 0.09). Blood levels of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α; P < 0.01), haptoglobin (P < 0.09), and C-reactive protein (CRP; P < 0.01) were higher due to the indirect immune challenge compared to pigs reared in the clean nursery (P < 0.05). In addition, pigs consuming antibiotics or lysozyme had lower TNF-α, haptoglobin, and CRP compared to control pigs, regardless of nursery environment (P < 0.04). Thus, lysozyme is a suitable alternative to antibiotics in swine nursery diets, and lysozyme ameliorates the effects of a chronic indirect immune challenge.

Improving piglet survivability rates is of high priority for swine production as well as for piglet well-being. Dysfunction in the serotonin (5-HT) system has been associated with growth deficiencies, infant mortalities, or failure to thrive in human infants. The aim of this research was to determine if a relationship exists between infant mortality and failure to thrive (or unthriftiness), and umbilical 5-HT concentration in piglets. Umbilical blood was collected from a total of 60 piglets from 15 litters for analysis of 5-HT and tryptophan (Trp; the AA precursor to 5-HT) concentrations. Behavior was scan sampled for the first 2 days after birth. Brain samples were also taken at 8 h after birth from healthy and unthrifty piglets (n = 4/group). The raphe nucleus was dissected out and analyzed for 5-HT and dopamine concentrations as well as their major metabolites 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA) and homovanillic acid (HVA), respectively. Data were analyzed by ANOVA. Piglets that died within 48 h of birth (n = 14) had significantly lower umbilical blood 5-HT concentrations at the time of their birth compared to their healthy counterparts (n = 46, P = 0.003). However, no difference in Trp was detected (P 0.38). Time spent under the heat lamp and sleeping were positively correlated with umbilical 5-HT levels (P = 0.004 and P = 0.02, respectively), while inactivity had a negative correlation with 5-HT levels (P = 0.04). In the raphe nucleus, the center for brain 5-HT biosynthesis, unthrifty piglets had a greater concentration of 5-HIAA (P = 0.02) and a trend for higher concentrations of 5-HT (P = 0.07) compared with healthy piglets. Dopamine levels did not differ between thrifty and unthrifty piglets (P = 0.45); however, its metabolite HVA tended to be greater in unthrifty piglets (P = 0.05). Our results show evidence of serotonergic dysfunction, at both the central and peripheral levels, accompanying early piglet mortalities. These data suggest a possible route for intervention, via the 5-HT system, to improve piglet survivability. However, further research is required to validate this hypothesis.

Although the climate in Germany is moderate, heat stress conditions may occur during summer months. However, it is unknown to what extent sow fertility and piglet survival are affected under moderate climatic conditions in indoor systems. Therefore, this study estimated effects of temperature and temperature-humidity index (THI) on sow fertility and piglet survival under practical husbandry conditions. Temperature and relative humidity were recorded in six piglet-producing farms in Lower Saxony, Germany, from July 2011 to August 2012. Based on that, the THI was calculated. In one farrowing, waiting and servicing unit of each farm two data loggers were installed. Reproductive parameters of 8279 successful inseminations and 10 369 litters including total number of piglets born, liveborn, stillborn and weaned piglets as well as pre-weaning mortality were evaluated. The effects of temperature and THI on reproductive parameters were estimated for varying periods after breeding and before and after farrowing, respectively. Average daily temperature across all units ranged from 15.6°C to 29.0°C, and average THI from 62.4 to 75.1. Season and parity significantly affected total number of piglets born, number of liveborn, stillborn and weaned piglets (P<0.001). The number of piglets born increased with rising temperature and THI in the 1st week post breeding. Higher temperatures and THI values before farrowing resulted in a reduced number of liveborn piglets. Elevated temperature and THI values after farrowing were associated with a greater number of weaned piglets. The pre-weaning mortality significantly decreased with increasing temperature and THI values after farrowing (P<0.05). In conclusion, temperature and THI affected the reproductive performance of the sows and the survival of the piglets in different ways. While increased climatic values at the time of breeding positively affected the total number of piglets born, increased values at the time of farrowing had negative impacts on the reproductive performance of the sows. Piglets benefited from higher temperature and THI values after farrowing.

Pre-partum feeding of 1,3-butanediol to sows has been shown to improve the metabolic status and survival rate of neonatal pigs. To evaluate the efficacy of short-term, pre-partum feeding of 1,3-butanediol on pig and sow productivity on a large scale and low concentration was the focus of the research. The secondary objective was to determine if pre-partum feeding of 1,3-butanediol had any effect on survival rate and weight gain of lesser body weight pigs, sow body weight and subsequent sow reproductive performance. In a large commercial unit, 2537 sows were fed one of two pre-partum diets (0% or 4.55% 1,3-butanediol) on Day 108±3 of pregnancy. 1,3-butanediol provided 8% of the total metabolizable energy. Pigs born live in those litters were equalized by cross-fostering among sows receiving the same pre-partum diet. Pigs were weaned from the sows at 16±3 days post-partum and return of sows to estrus and conception rates were determined. Pre-partum feeding of 1,3-butanediol reduced (P=0.01) pre-weaning pig mortalities from 1.44 to 1.24 pigs per litter. The reduction in pig mortality was independent of length of 1,3-butanediol feeding (4 to 11 days). In a subset of 750 litters, four lesser birth-weight pigs from each litter were tagged and monitored to determine the effect of 1,3-butanediol on survival rates and pre-weaning weight gain of pigs with the greatest mortality risk. 1,3-butanediol reduced (P=0.01) pre-weaning mortality of these low birth weight pigs by 5.27%. Based on these data, short-term pre-partum feeding of 1,3-butanediol effectively improves pre-weaning pig productivity at a lower concentration than previously reported., (Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Piglet survival is a major problem, especially during the first 3 days after birth. Piglets are born deficient of energy, but at the same time they have a very high energy requirement because of high physical activity, high need for thermoregulation (because of their lean body with low insulation) and high heat production in muscle tissues. To be able to survive, newborn piglets may rely upon three different sources of energy, namely, glycogen, colostrum and transient milk, which orchestrate to cover their energy requirements. Piglets are born with limited amounts of energy in glycogen depots in the liver and muscle tissues and these depots are sufficient for normal activity for ∼16 h. Intake and oxidation of fat and lactose from colostrum must supply sufficient amount of energy to cover at least another 18 h until transient milk becomes available in the sow udder ∼34 h after the first piglet is born. Selection for large litters during the last two decades has challenged piglets even further during the critical neonatal phase because the selection programs indirectly decreased birth weight of piglets and because increased litter size has increased the competition between littermates. Different attempts have been made to increase the short-term survival of piglets, that is, survival until day 3 of lactation, by focusing on improving transfer of vital maternal energy to the offspring, either in utero or via mammary secretions. Thus, the present review addresses how sow nutrition in late gestation may favor survival of newborn piglets by increasing glycogen depots, improving colostrum yield or colostrum composition, or by increasing production of transient milk.

Perinatal mortality is high among small-for-gestational age (SGA) piglets and continues to be an economic burden and threat to animal welfare. As the physiological role of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) in perinatal development and gastrointestinal function in the pig remains unknown, the aim of this study was to assess the enteric distribution of 5-HT cells and to determine 5-HT together with its precursor tryptophan in the serum of perinatal normal and SGA piglets. For this purpose, proximal and distal parts of the small intestine (SI) were processed for immunohistochemical analysis to assess the presence of 5-HT endocrine cells. Serum 5-HT was measured with ELISA, whereas its precursor, that is, the free fraction of tryptophan (FFT) together with albumin-bound tryptophan and total tryptophan, were analysed with HPLC in postnatal piglets. In addition, the morphological growth patterns of the different intestinal tissue layers of both normal and SGA piglets were stereologically analysed. The stereological volume density of 5-HT enteroendocrine cells showed a significant interaction effect between age and region. Indeed, the amount of 5-HT cells in both the proximal and distal part of the SI tended to decrease according to age, with the lowest values detected at day 3 postpartum. No differences could be observed related to BW. Interestingly, the serum concentration of 5-HT was higher in normal piglets compared with SGA piglets. Moreover, the ratio of FFT to total tryptophan was significantly affected by age and BW. Normal piglets had, on average, a lower FFT/total tryptophan ratio compared with SGA piglets. An approximate linear decrease was observed with increasing age. Finally, the immaturity of the intestinal system of the SGA piglets was not reflected in altered volume densities of the different intestinal layers. To conclude, although no BW effect could be detected in the distribution of enteric 5-HT cells, serum 5-HT and the ratio of FFT to total tryptophan ratio showed significant differences between normal piglets and their SGA littermates.

Type A spermatogonia, including spermatogonial stem cells, are primary cells that maintain spermatogenesis and produce spermatozoa. Many spermatogonial markers have been reported in rodents. However, few markers have been identified in pig spermatogonia. Despite the lack of information, it is necessary to separate pure spermatogonial cells from whole testicular cells to understand the mechanism of spermatogenic meiosis and to establish spermatogonial stem cells for further biotechnological studies. The purpose of this study was to identify glial cell-derived neurotrophic factor receptor alpha-1 (GFRα-1) as a surface marker for early spermatogonia in neonatal pig testes. Histological analysis of 3-day-old pig testes revealed that type A spermatogonia, which lack heterochromatin, could be distinguished in neonatal pig testes. Immunohistochemistry of neonatal pig testes with GFRα-1 antibody identified that some of the spermatogonial cells expressed GFRα-1 on the cell membrane. Co-immunostaining with both GFRα-1 and protein gene product 9.5 (PGP 9.5) detected PGP 9.5 in all spermatogonia of neonatal pig testes, whereas GFRα-1 was not detected on the surface of some PGP 9.5-positive cells, indicating that some of the spermatogonial cells were PGP 9.5 positive and GFRα-1 negative. After immunomagnetic cell sorting using a GFRα-1 antibody, both GFRα-1-positive and GFRα-1-negative cells expressed PGP 9.5. Identifying the differential mRNA expression of both GFRα-1-positive and GFRα-1-negative cells using reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction analysis revealed the expression of promyelocytic leukaemia zinc finger, octamer-binding protein 4 and homeobox transcription factor in both cell types. These results suggest that GFRα-1-positive and GFRα-1-negative spermatogonia exist in PGP 9.5-positive spermatogonia during the early stage of pig testes spermatogenesis, and that GFRα-1 can be used for sorting PGP 9.5-expressing spermatogonia., (© 2013 Blackwell Verlag GmbH.)

The present study aimed to determine, in a swine model of leptin resistance, the effects of type and timing of maternal malnutrition on growth patterns, adiposity and metabolic features of the progeny when exposed to an obesogenic diet during their juvenile development and possible concomitant effects of the offspring sex. Thus, four groups were considered. A CONTROL group involved pigs born from sows fed with a diet fulfilling their daily maintenance requirements for pregnancy. The treated groups involved the progeny of females fed with the same diet but fulfilling either 160% or 50% of pregnancy requirements during the entire gestation (OVERFED and UNDERFED, respectively) or 100% of requirements until Day 35 of pregnancy and 50% of such amount from Day 36 onwards (LATE-UNDERFED). OVERFED and UNDERFED offspring were more prone to higher corpulence and fat deposition from early postnatal stages, during breast-feeding; adiposity increased significantly when exposed to obesogenic diets, especially in females. The effects of sex were even more remarkable in LATE-UNDERFED offspring, which had similar corpulence to CONTROL piglets; however, females showed a clear predisposition to obesity. Furthermore, the three groups of pigs with maternal malnutrition showed evidences of metabolic syndrome and, in the case of individuals born from OVERFED sows, even of insulin resistance and the prodrome of type-2 diabetes. These findings support the main role of early nutritional programming in the current rise of obesity and associated diseases in ethnics with leptin resistance.

In previous research, several WNT signaling pathway genes including transcription factor 12 (TCF12), catenin alpha-like protein 1 (CTNNAL1) and wingless-type MMTV integration site family, member 10B (WNT10B) were differentially expressed in PMSG-hCG stimulated preovulatory ovarian follicles of Large White and Chinese Taihu sows. In the present research, these three genes were selected as the candidate genes for litter size traits in pigs. Four mutations (TCF12 c.-201+65 G>A, TCF12 c.-200-300 G>A, CTNNAL1 c.1878 G>C and WNT10B c.*12 C>T) were detected in eleven pig populations, and results indicated CTNNAL1 c.1878 G and WNT10B c.*12 C were the major alleles in all tested pig populations, while TCF12 c.-201+65 A and TCF12 c.-200-300 A were the major alleles in several Chinese native pig breeds. Association analysis of four mutations with litter size in Large White and DIV pigs showed that both the signficant differences of total number born (TNB) and number born alive (NBA) among three genotypes and the significance of additive effects appeared at TCF12 c.-200-300 G>A and CTNNAL1 c.1878 G>C loci, suggesting these two mutations might be reliable markers for pig selection and breeding., (Crown Copyright © 2013. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Pigs are confronted with changes in farming practices that may affect performance and animal well-being. The sanitary conditions of the farm can have an impact on the ability of pigs to adapt to these changes. This study aimed to analyse how weaned pigs respond to common farming practices of changes in diet and housing in terms of performance, health and behaviour, and how these responses are affected by the sanitary housing conditions, qualified here as good or poor. At weaning at 4 weeks of age, 20 piglets were assigned to 10 blocks of two littermates and each pig within a litter was randomly assigned to one of two sanitary conditions. Pigs were housed individually and received a starter diet. A diet change occurred on day 12 post weaning (starter to weaner diets) and pigs were transferred to the grower unit on day 33 post weaning and continued to receive the weaner diet. From 43 days post weaning, pigs were offered a grower diet and were vaccinated against swine influenza on day 47 and 61 post weaning. On the basis of this design, three post-weaning phases were identified: phase I from day 1 to 11 (post weaning), phase II from day 12 to 32 (after the diet change) and phase III from day 33 to 42 (after the housing change). Individual BW was measured every 3 days, and feed refusals and faecal scores were recorded on a daily basis. Behavioural observations were performed during 28 days by using the instantaneous scan sampling method. Individual blood samples were collected at the end of each phase to analyse the plasma concentration of haptoglobin and on day 68 post weaning to analyse the anti-influenza immunoglobulins G (IgG). Poor sanitary conditions resulted in a decrease in daily gain, feed intake and gain to feed ratio of, respectively, 11%, 5% and 7% (P < 0.05). Pigs in poor sanitary conditions had higher faecal scores (P < 0.05), tended to have higher plasma haptoglobin concentration in phase II (P = 0.06) and had a higher anti-influenza IgG titre (P = 0.11). The diet change affected performance and behavioural responses of pigs in poor but not in good sanitary conditions. Housing change resulted in a 30% decrease in growth and an increase in behaviour oriented towards exploration and excitement. The results of this study show an effect of sanitary conditions on the responses of pigs to a diet change, whereas those to a housing change were little affected by the sanitary conditions.

Low systemic blood flow occurs in up to 30% of infants born at less than 30 wk gestation. It is associated with increased morbidity and mortality, and current treatments are ineffective in 40% of cases. The aim of this study was to assess the ability of the preterm heart to respond to the acute shifts in preload and afterload that occur at the time of birth. Myocardial and coronary vascular function was assessed using an isolated working heart model in term (115 days) and preterm (92 days) piglets. Cardiac output/kg body wt in preterm hearts was ∼50% lower than that of term hearts (P = 0.001). Pressure development was similar in term and preterm hearts. Elevations in preload increased cardiac output and aortic flow similarly in term and preterm hearts, demonstrating significant preload "reserve". By contrast, elevations in afterload markedly depressed aortic flow, with a greater proportion of cardiac output being distributed to coronary flow in preterm hearts at high afterloads. The demands of increased workload were associated with greater increases in coronary flow in preterm hearts compared with term hearts. In preterm hearts, exposure to maternal glucocorticoids resulted in increased aortic flow when afterload was below 25 mmHg. These data suggest the preterm heart lacks the functional capacity to acutely adapt to postnatal afterload. To maximize systemic blood flow in preterm infants, treatments limiting afterload, while harnessing significant preload reserve, should be further explored.

Blood estrone sulfate (E(1) S), estrone (E(1) ), estradiol (E(2) ) and progesterone (P(4) ) in newborn piglets were measured to clarify the relationships among birth and placental weight, vitality of offspring and litter size. First, the association between vital status (normal, weak and stillborn) from 165 newborn piglets of 18 litters and steroid concentrations; second, steroid concentrations from 152 newborn normal piglets and litter size; and third, steroid content in fetal placenta from 50 newborn normal piglets of six litters and litter size, were investigated. In the normal group, the birth and placental weight were significantly higher than those in the other groups. Blood E(1) S levels in the stillborn group were significantly lower, whereas E(1) , E(2) and P(4) were significantly higher compared to the normal group. Blood and placental E(1) S levels in the small litter group were significantly higher than those in the other groups. However, there was no significant difference among the three litter size groups in the levels of steroid hormones in maternal blood. These results indicate that vitality of newborn piglets is related to E(1) S concentration of neonate, to birth weight and placental weight. However, steroid hormone concentrations of newborn piglets were greatly affected by the number of littermates., (© 2012 The Authors. Animal Science Journal © 2012 Japanese Society of Animal Science.)

There is no consensus concerning the Trp requirement for piglets expressed relative to Lys on a standardized ileal digestible basis (SID Trp : Lys). A meta-analysis was performed to estimate the SID Trp : Lys ratio that maximizes performance of weaned piglets between 7 and 25 kg of BW. A database comprising 130 experiments on the Trp requirement in piglets was established. The nutritional values of the diets were calculated from the composition of feed ingredients. Among all experiments, 37 experiments were selected to be used in the meta-analysis because they were designed to express the Trp requirement relative to Lys (e.g. Lys was the second-limiting amino acid in the diet) while testing at least three levels of Trp. The linear-plateau (LP), curvilinear-plateau (CLP) and asymptotic (ASY) models were tested to estimate the SID Trp : Lys requirement using average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI) and gain-to-feed ratio (G : F) as response criteria. A multiplicative trial effect was included in the models on the plateau value, assuming that the experimental conditions affected only this parameter and not the requirement or the shape of the response to Trp. Model choice appeared to have an important impact on the estimated requirement. Using ADG and ADFI as response criteria, the SID Trp : Lys requirement was estimated at 17% with the LP model, at 22% with the CLP model and at 26% with the ASY model. Requirement estimates were slightly lower when G : F was used as response criterion. The Trp requirement was not affected by the composition of the diet (corn v. a mixture of cereals). The CLP model appeared to be the best-adapted model to describe the response curve of a population. This model predicted that increasing the SID Trp : Lys ratio from 17% to 22% resulted in an increase in ADG by 8%.

For the most part solutions to farm animal welfare issues, such as piglet mortality, are likely to lie within the scientific disciplines of environmental design and genetic selection, however understanding the ecological basis of some of the complex dynamics observed between parent and offspring could make a valuable contribution. One interesting, and often discussed, aspect of mortality is the propensity for it to be sex-biased. This study investigated whether known physiological and behavioural indicators of piglet survival differed between the sexes and whether life history strategies (often reported in wild or feral populations) relating to parental investment were being displayed in a domestic population of pigs. Sex ratio (proportion of males (males/males+females)) at birth was 0.54 and sex allocation (maternal investment measured as piglet birth weight/litter weight) was statistically significantly male-biased at 0.55 (t(35) = 2.51 P = 0.017), suggesting that sows invested more in sons than daughters during gestation. Despite this investment in birth weight, a known survival indicator, total pre-weaning male mortality was statistically significantly higher than female mortality (12% vs. 7% respectively z = 2.06 P = 0.040). Males tended to suffer from crushing by the sow more than females and statistically significantly more males died from disease-related causes. Although males were born on average heavier, with higher body mass index and ponderal index, these differences were not sustained. In addition male piglets showed impaired thermoregulation compared to females. These results suggest male-biased mortality exists despite greater initial maternal investment, and therefore reflects the greater susceptibility of this sex to causal mortality factors. Life history strategies are being displayed by a domestic population of pigs with sows in this study displaying a form of parental optimism by allocating greater resources at birth to males and providing an over-supply of this more vulnerable sex in expectation of sex-biased mortality.