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The use of rolling averages to analyse training data has been debated recently. We evaluated two training load quantification methods (five-zone, seven-zone) fitted to performances over two race distances (50 and 100 m) using four separate longitudinal models (Banister, Busso. rolling averages and exponentially weighted rolling averages) for three swimmers ranked in the top 8 in the world. A total of 1610 daily load measures and 108 performances were collected. Banister (standard error of the estimate (SEE) 0.64 and 0.62 s; five-zone and seven-zone quantification methods), Busso (SEE 0.73 and 0.70 s) and exponentially weighted rolling averages (SEE 0.57 and 0.63 s) models fitted more accurately ( p  < 0.001) than the rolling averages approach (SEE 1.32 and 1.36 s). The seven-zone quantification method did not produce more accurate performance predictions than the five-zone method, despite being a more detailed form of training load quantification. Four neural network models were fitted and had a lower error (SEE 0.38, 0.41, 0.35 and 0.60 s) than all longitudinal models, but did not track as predictably over time. Exponentially weighted impulse-response models and exponentially weighted rolling averages appear more effective at predicting performance using training load data in elite swimmers than a rolling averages approach.

Purpose: Critical speed (CS) and supra-CS distance capacity (D') are useful metrics for monitoring changes in swimmers' physiological and performance capacities. However, the utility of these metrics across a season has not been systematically evaluated in high level swimmers., Methods: Twenty-seven swimmers (18 female; age 19.1 ± 2.9 y, 9 male; 19.5 ± 1.9 y, mean ± SD) completed the 12x25m swimming test multiple times (4 ± 3 tests/swimmer) across a two-year period. Season-best times in all distances for the test stroke were sourced from publicly available databases. Swimmers' distance speciality was determined as the event with the time closest to world record. Four metrics were calculated from the 12x25m test: CS, D', peak speed and drop off %., Results: Guyatt's Responsiveness Index values were calculated to ascertain the practically relevant sensitivity of each 12x25m metric: CS = 1.5, peak speed = 2.3, D' = 2.1 and drop off % = 2.6. These values are modified effect sizes (ES); all are large effects. Bayesian mixed-modelling showed substantial between-subject differences between genders and strokes for each variable, but minimal within-subject changes across the season. Drop off % was lower in 200 m swimmers (14.0 ± 3.3%) compared to 100 m swimmers (18.1 ± 4.1%, p = 0.003, ES = 1.10)., Conclusion: The 12x25m test is best suited to differentiating between swimmers of different strokes and events. Further development is needed to improve its utility in quantifying meaningful changes over a season for individual swimmers.

Objectives: In elite age-group swimming it is unclear to what degree common assessments of anthropometric, jump performance and front-crawl critical speed (CS) correlate with competition performance., Design: Cross-sectional field study., Methods: Forty eight elite national-level junior swimmers (22 males, age 16.5±1.2 y, 26 females, age 15.5±1.1 y; mean±SD) completed anthropometry tests, loaded and unloaded countermovement jumps and a series of front-crawl time-trials to determine CS and supra-CS distance capacity (D'). Years from peak height velocity (PHV) predicted from anthropometric data was used as a maturity indicator. Race performances within 3 months of testing were standardised to compare across distances and strokes. Multiple linear regression models were formulated using these data., Results: Loaded jump height, mass, D', PHV and humerus breadth best predicted 100m performance in males (R 2 Adj =0.88, p<0.001), while loaded jump height, chest depth and sitting height predicted female 100m performances (R 2 Adj =0.74, p=0.002). Loaded and unloaded jump height, mass, CS and PHV (R 2 Adj =0.73, p=0.003) and CS and chest depth (R 2 Adj =0.33, p=0.03) predicted 200m performance in males and females respectively., Conclusions: Common assessments of power and aerobic capacity in elite junior swimmers explain more variance in competition performance for male than female swimmers, as well as for 100m rather than 200m events. These findings highlight the need to empirically assess testing regimens and suggest new tests in this population may be required., (Copyright © 2018 Sports Medicine Australia. All rights reserved.)

Critical speed (CS) testing is useful in monitoring training in swimmers, however, completing a series of time trials (TTs) regularly is time-consuming. The 3-minute test may be a solution with positive initial findings. This investigation examined whether a modified 3-minute test (12 × 25 m) could assess CS and supra-CS distance capacity (D') in swimmers. A series of 12 × 25 m intervals were completed unpaced at maximal effort, interspersed with 5 s rest periods. The model speed = a e b t  + c was fitted to the data and integrated to calculate D'. The slowest two of the last four efforts were averaged to calculate CS. To assess reliability, 15 highly trained swimmers (9 females, 6 males) completed the 12 × 25 m twice within 72 h. Four measures were deemed reliable: peak velocity (0.01 m s -1 ; 0.5%, typical error and % coefficient of variation), CS (0.02 m s -1 ; 1.2%), D' (1.22 m; 5.7%) and drop off % (0.70% points; 4.5%). To assess criterion validity, 21 swimmers (9 from reliability, 12 other) completed two competition races within 2 weeks of a 12 × 25 m in the same stroke. Traditional CS and D' measures were calculated from competition performances (TT method). TT CS and 12 × 25 m CS were highly correlated (adj. R 2  = 0.60, p < .01). Two TTs may have been too few to estimate D' accurately. The 12 × 25 m all-out swimming test is a reliable method for assessing CS and D' in swimmers, however, the validity of D' requires further investigation.2  = 0.60, p < .01). Two TTs may have been too few to estimate D' accurately. The 12 × 25 m all-out swimming test is a reliable method for assessing CS and D' in swimmers, however, the validity of D' requires further investigation.

This study investigated the effect of completing additional warm-up strategies in the transition phase between the pool warm up and the start of a race on elite sprint swimming performance. Twenty-five elite swimmers (12 men, 20 ± 3 years; 13 women, 20 ± 2 years, performance standard ~807 FINA2014 points) completed a standardised pool warm up followed by a 30-min transition phase and a 100-m freestyle time trial. During the transition phase, swimmers wore a tracksuit jacket with integrated heating elements and performed a dry land-based exercise routine (Combo), or a conventional tracksuit and remained seated (Control). Start (1.5% ± 1.0%, P = 0.02; mean ± 90% confidence limits) and 100-m time trial (0.8% ± 0.4%, P < 0.01) performances were improved in Combo. Core temperature declined less (-0.2°C ± 0.1°C versus -0.5°C ± 0.1°C, P = 0.02) during the transition phase and total local (trapezius) haemoglobin concentration was greater before the time trial in Combo (81 µM ± 25 µM versus 30 µM ± 18 µM, P < 0.01; mean ± standard deviation) than in Control. Combining swimmers traditional pool warm up with passive heating via heated jackets and completion of dry land-based exercises in the transition phase improves elite sprint swimming performance by ~0.8%.

Context: An exercise bout completed several hours prior to an event may improve competitive performance later that same day., Purpose: To examine the influence of morning exercise on afternoon sprint-swimming performance., Methods: Thirteen competitive swimmers (7 male, mean age 19 ± 3 y; 6 female, mean age 17 ± 3 y) completed a morning session of 1200 m of variedintensity swimming (SwimOnly), a combination of varied-intensity swimming and a resistance-exercise routine (SwimDry), or no morning exercise (NoEx). After a 6-h break, swimmers completed a 100-m time trial., Results: Time-trial performance was faster in SwimOnly (1.6% ± 0.6, mean ± 90% confidence limit, P < .01) and SwimDry (1.7% ± 0.7%, P < .01) than in NoEx. Split times for the 25- to 50-m distance were faster in both SwimOnly (1.7% ± 1.2%, P = .02) and SwimDry (1.5% ± 0.8%, P = .01) than in NoEx. The first 50-m stroke rate was higher in SwimOnly (0.70 ± 0.21 Hz, mean ± SD, P = .03) and SwimDry (0.69 ± 0.18 Hz, P = .05) than in NoEx (0.64 ± 0.16 Hz). Before the afternoon session, core (0.2°C ± 0.1°C [mean ± 90% confidence limit], P = .04), body (0.2°C ± 0.1°C, P = .02), and skin temperatures (0.3°C ± 0.3°C, P = .02) were higher in SwimDry than in NoEx., Conclusions: Completion of a morning swimming session alone or together with resistance exercise can substantially enhance sprint-swimming performance completed later the same day.

McGowan, CJ, Pyne, DB, Raglin, JS, Thompson, KG, and Rattray, B. Current warm-up practices and contemporary issues faced by elite swimming coaches. J Strength Cond Res 30(12): 3471-3480, 2016-A better understanding of current swimming warm-up strategies is needed to improve their effectiveness. The purpose of this study was to describe current precompetition warm-up practices and identify contemporary issues faced by elite swimming coaches during competition. Forty-six state-international level swimming coaches provided information through a questionnaire on their prescription of volume, intensity, and recovery within their pool and dryland-based competition warm-ups, and challenges faced during the final stages of event preparation. Coaches identified four key objectives of the precompetition warm-up: physiological (elevate body temperature and increase muscle activation), kinesthetic (tactile preparation, increase "feel" of the water), tactical (race-pace rehearsal), and mental (improve focus, reduce anxiety). Pool warm-up volume ranged from ∼1300 to 2100 m, beginning with 400-1000 m of continuous, low-intensity (∼50-70% of perceived maximal exertion) swimming, followed by 200-600 m of stroke drills and 1-2 sets (100-400 m in length) of increasing intensity (∼60-90%) swimming, concluding with 3-4 race or near race-pace efforts (25-100 m; ∼90-100%) and 100-400 m easy swimming. Dryland-based warm-up exercises, involving stretch cords and skipping, were also commonly prescribed. Coaches preferred swimmers complete their warm-up 20-30 minutes before race start. Lengthy marshalling periods (15-20+ minutes) and the time required to don racing suits (>10 minutes) were identified as complicating issues. Coaches believed that the pool warm-up affords athletes the opportunity to gain a tactile feel for the water and surrounding pool environment. The combination of dryland-based activation exercises followed by pool-based warm-up routines seems to be the preferred approach taken by elite swimming coaches preparing their athletes for competition.

Purpose: Targeted passive heating and completion of dryland-based activation exercises within the warm-up can enhance sprint freestyle performance. The authors investigated if these interventions would also elicit improvements in sprint breaststroke swimming performance., Methods: Ten national and internationally competitive swimmers (~805 FINA (Fédération internationale de natation) 2014 scoring points; 6 men, mean ± SD 20 ± 1 y; 4 women, 21 ± 3 y) completed a standardized pool warm-up (1550 m) followed by a 30-min transition phase and a 100-m breaststroke time trial. In the transition phase, swimmers wore a conventional tracksuit and remained seated (control) or wore tracksuit pants with integrated heating elements and performed a 5-min dryland-based exercise routine (combo) in a crossover design., Results: Performance in the 100-m time trial (control: 68.6 ± 4.0 s, combo: 68.4 ± 3.9 s, P = .55) and start times to 15 m (control: 7.3 ± 0.6 s; combo: 7.3 ± 0.6 s; P = .81) were not different between conditions. It was unclear (P = .36) whether combo (-0.12°C ± 0.19°C [mean ± 90% confidence limits]) elicited an improvement in core temperature maintenance in the transition phase compared with control (-0.31°C ± 0.19°C). Skin temperature immediately before commencement of the time trial was higher (by ~1°C, P = .01) within combo (30.13°C ± 0.88°C [mean ± SD]) compared with control (29.11°C ± 1.20°C). Lower-body power output was not different between conditions before the time trial., Conclusions: Targeted passive heating and completion of dryland-based activation exercises in the transition phase does not enhance sprint breaststroke performance despite eliciting elevated skin temperature immediately before time trial commencement.

Objectives: The lengthy competition transition phases commonly experienced by competitive swimmers may mitigate the benefits of the pool warm-up. To combat this, we examined the impact of additional passive and active warm-up strategies on sprint swimming performance., Design: Counterbalanced, repeated-measures cross-over study., Methods: Sixteen junior competitive swimmers completed a standardised pool warm-up followed by a 30min transition and 100m freestyle time-trial. Swimmers completed four different warm-up strategies during transition: remained seated wearing a conventional tracksuit top and pants (Control), wore an insulated top with integrated heating elements (Passive), performed a 5min dryland-based exercise circuit (Dryland), or a combination of Passive and Dryland (Combo). Swimming time-trial performance, core and skin temperature and perceptual variables were monitored. Time variables were normalised relative to Control., Results: Both Combo (-1.05±0.26%; mean±90% confidence limits, p=0.00) and Dryland (-0.68±0.34%; p=0.02) yielded faster overall time-trial performances, with start times also faster for Combo (-0.37±0.07%; p=0.00) compared to Control. Core temperature declined less during transition with Combo (-0.13±0.25°C; p=0.01) and possibly with Dryland (-0.24±0.13°C; p=0.09) compared to Control (-0.64±0.16°C), with a smaller reduction in core temperature related to better time-trial performance (R(2)=0.91; p=0.04)., Conclusions: Dryland-based exercise circuits completed alone and in combination with the application of heated tracksuit jackets during transition can significantly improve sprint swimming performance. Attenuation in the decline of core temperature and a reduction in start time appear as likely mechanisms., (Copyright © 2015 Sports Medicine Australia. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)