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This study aimed to compare performance, kinematic, and physiological variables between open water and pool swimming conditions in elite triathletes and to examine the associations between conditions on these variables. Fourteen elite triathletes (10 males and 4 females [23.4 ± 3.8 years]) performed two 1500-m swimming tests in open water and in a 25-m pool. Swimming speed, stroke rate (SR), length (SL) and index (SI), heart rate (HR), blood lactate concentrations [La - ], and end-exercise oxygen uptake (EEV̇O 2 ) were assessed in both conditions. Lower SL and SI and higher SR were obtained in open water compared with pool swimming (p < 0.05). Moreover, kinematic variables changed as a function of distance in both conditions (p < 0.05). No differences were found in the main physiological variables (HR, [La - ], and EEV̇O 2 ) between conditions. Respiratory exchange ratio presented lower values in open water than in pool conditions (p < 0.05), while time constant was higher in open water (p = 0.032). The fastest triathletes in open water obtained the best performance in the pool (r = 0.958; p < 0.001). All kinematic variables, HR and peak [La - ] presented positive associations between conditions (r > 0.6; p < 0.05). Despite physiological invariance, triathletes and coaches should monitor specific open water training to adapt their swimming technique to the competitive environment., (© 2024 The Author(s). Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science In Sports published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.)

This study aimed (i) to analyze the 1500 m open water swimming performance, (ii) to examine the associations between physiological and biomechanical variables with swimming performance, and (iii) to determine which variables can predict swimming performance in triathletes. Fourteen elite triathletes (23.4±3.8 y) performed a 1500 m test in open water swimming conditions. Swimming performance was assessed using World Aquatics Points Scoring, and data were obtained from the 1500 m open water swimming test. Heart rate, end-exercise oxygen uptake (EE˙VO 2 ) and blood lactate concentrations were measured. The initial 250 m of the 1500 m swimming test presented the highest values of biomechanical variables in males (i. e. swimming speed, stroke rate (SR), length (SL), index (SI)). A decrease in SL was observed in the last 250 m in both sexes. Positive association were found between EE˙VO 2 (r=0.513; p =0.030), swimming speed (r=0.873; p <0.001) and SI (r=0.704; p =0.002) with swimming performance. In contrast, time constant of the oxygen uptake (r=-0.500; p =0.034) and buoy-turn times (r=-0.525; p =0.027) were negatively associated with performance. SI was the main predictor ( R =0.495) of open water swimming performance in triathletes. In conclusion, triathletes and coaches must conduct open water training sessions to maximize SI (i. e. swimming efficiency).2 =0.495) of open water swimming performance in triathletes. In conclusion, triathletes and coaches must conduct open water training sessions to maximize SI (i. e. swimming efficiency)., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest., (Thieme. All rights reserved.)

In swimming, the underwater phase after the start and turn comprises gliding and dolphin kicking, with the latter also known as underwater undulatory swimming (UUS). Swimming performance is highly dependent on the underwater phase; therefore, understanding the training effects in UUS and underwater gliding can be critical for swimmers and coaches. Further, the development of technique in young swimmers can lead to exponential benefits in an athlete's career. This study aimed to evaluate the effects of a training protocol on UUS and underwater gliding performance and kinematics in young swimmers. Seventeen age group swimmers (boys = 10, girls = 7) performed maximal UUS and underwater gliding efforts before and after a seven-week training protocol. Time to reach 10 m; intra-cyclic mean, peak, and minimum velocities; and gliding performance improved significantly after the training protocol. The UUS performance improvement was mostly produced by an improvement of the upbeat execution, together with a likely reduction of swimmers' hydrodynamic drag. Despite the changes in UUS and gliding, performance was also likely influenced by growth. The findings from this study highlight kinematic variables that can be used to understand and quantify changes in UUS and gliding performance.

Purpose: To analyze the associations between physiological and biomechanical variables with the FINA (International Swimming Federation) points (ie, swimming performance) obtained in 1500-m front-crawl swimming to determine whether these variables can be used to explain triathletes' FINA points., Methods: Fourteen world-class, international and national triathletes (10 male: 23.24 [3.70] y and 4 female: 23.36 [3.76] y) performed a 1500-m front-crawl swimming test in a short-course pool. Heart rate (HR), oxygen uptake (V˙O2), and blood lactate concentrations were obtained before and after the test. HR was also measured during the effort. Highest V˙O2 value (V˙O2peak) was estimated by extrapolation. Clean swimming speed, turn performance, stroke rate, stroke length, and stroke index (SI) were obtained by video analysis., Results: Average 1500-m performance times were 1088 (45) seconds and 1144 (31) seconds for males and females, respectively. HR after the effort, V˙O2peak, aerobic contributions, total energy expenditure, energy cost, and turn performance presented moderate negative associations with swimming performance (r ≈ .5). In contrast, respiratory exchange ratio, anaerobic alactic contribution, clean swimming speed, stroke length, and SI were positively related, with clean swimming speed and SI having a strong large association (r ≈ .7). A multiple stepwise regression model determined that 71% of the variance in FINA points was explained by SI and total energy expenditure, being predictors in 1500-m front-crawl swimming., Conclusions: Swimming performance in triathletes was determined by the athletes' energy demands and biomechanical variables. Thus, coaches should develop specific technique skills to improve triathletes' swimming efficiency.

The present study aimed to analyze swimmers' in-water kinetic and kinematic behaviors according to different swimming performance tiers within the same age group. An amount of 53 highly trained swimmers (girls and boys: 12.40 ± 0.74 years) were split up into 3 tiers based on their personal best performance (i.e., speed) in the 50 m freestyle event (short-course): lower-tier (1.25 ± 0.08 m·s -1 ); mid-tier (1.45 ± 0.04 m·s -1 ); and top-tier (1.60 ± 0.04 m·s -1 ). The in-water mean peak force was measured during a maximum bout of 25 m front crawl using a differential pressure sensors system (Aquanex system, Swimming Technology Research, Richmond, VA, USA) and defined as a kinetic variable, while speed, stroke rate, stroke length, and stroke index were retrieved and considered as kinematic measures. The top-tier swimmers were taller with a longer arm span and hand surface areas than the low-tier, but similar to the mid-tier. While the mean peak force, speed and efficiency differed among tiers, the stroke rate and stroke length showed mixed findings. Coaches should be aware that young swimmers belonging to the same age group may deliver different performance outcomes due to different kinetic and kinematic behaviors.

The level of expertise must be defined for the sample studied when reporting research in sport. Concretely in swimming, apart from the participants' background, the competitive status is based on the level that swimmers participate. Thus, the International Swimming Federation (FINA) points are added to improve the sample level characterization. The aim of this study was two-fold: (1) to assess whether national and regional swimmers from different countries differ in their performance level (based on FINA points), and (2) to propose a model that allows standardizing the research results in swimming. The FINA points of 5876 participants (males = 2962 and females = 2914) in 100 m butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke and freestyle were retrieved from nationals ( n  = 21) and regionals ( n  = 44) swimming competitions. One-way analysis of variance was conducted to test the difference in FINA points between swimmers of different countries. Significant disparities (100-350 FINA points; p  < 0.001) were observed in national and regional competitions for male and female swimmers among the different countries analyzed. This could lead to misleading conclusions when comparing studies with national or regional swimmers from different countries. In this regard, a new model of performance classification based on national and regional worldwide competition is proposed. This might be used to standardized the swimming research results. Highlights - The current classification of swimmers' status could lead to misleading conclusion when comparing studies from different countries using national or regional swimmers.- The proposed model will allow to better standardize the research results in swimming, aiding to draw more accurate conclusion when comparing results from different studies.

Our aim was to establish the determinants explaining the wetsuit advantages in middle-distance swimming efforts. Thirty-one triathletes and open water swimmers performed two 400 m front crawl bouts in a 25 m swimming pool with swim and wetsuits (with 48 h rest in-between). Anthropometric, kinematic and physiological variables were measured and Pearson correlation coefficients and stepwise linear regression analysis were used to determine their relationships. Associations observed in the 400 m front crawl included time improved using wetsuit with swimmers age (r=0.38; p =0.017), cross-sectional area (r=0.33; p =0.034), wetsuit upper limbs thickness (r=-0.49; p =0.010), ΔInternational Swimming Federation Points (r=-0.39; p =0.016), Δstroke rate (SR, r=0.48; p =0.003), Δstroke length (SL, r=-0.39; p =0.015), Δpropelling efficiency (r=-0.37; p =0.019) and Δblood lactate concentrations (r=0.30; p =0.048) in the total sample. In females, associations were found between the time improved and wetsuit upper and lower limbs thickness (both r=-0.78; p =0.011), and in males associations were found between time improved and age (r=0.43; p =0.030), ΔSR (r=0.56; p =0.005) and ΔSL (r=-0.44; p =0.026). Furthermore, 48% of the 400 m front crawl time improved was explained by wetsuit upper limbs thickness and SR changes (total sample), 62% explained by the wetsuit lower limbs thickness (females) and 48% of this enhancement was related to age and SR changes (males). Therefore, faster upper and lower limbs actions and wetsuit upper and lower limbs thickness are beneficial for 400 m front crawl performance improvement., Competing Interests: The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest., (Thieme. All rights reserved.)

Ultra-short race-pace training (USRPT) is a high-intensity training modality used in swimming for the development of specific race-technique. However, there is little information about the fatigue associated to this modality. In a crossover design, acute responses of two volume-equated sessions (1000-m) were compared on 14 national swimmers: i) USRPT: 20×50-m; ii) RPT: 10×100-m. Both protocols followed an equivalent work-recovery ratio (1:1) based on individual 200-m race-pace. The swimming times and the arm-strokes count were monitored on each set and compared by mixed-models. Blood lactate [La - ] and countermovement jump-height (CMJ) were compared within and between conditions 2 and 5 min after the protocols. The last bouts in RPT were 1.5-3% slower than the target pace, entailing an arm-strokes increase of ~0.22 for every second increase in swimming time. USRPT produced lower [La - ] ([Mean ± standard deviation], 2 min: 8.2±2.4 [p = 0.021]; 5 min: 6.9±2.8 mM/L [p = 0.008]), than RPT (2 min: 10.9±2.3; 5 min: 9.9±2.4 mM/L). CMJ was lowered at min 2 after RPT (-11.09%) and USRPT (-5.89%), but returned to baseline in USRPT at min 5 of recovery (4.07%). In conclusion, lower fatigue and better recovery were achieved during USRPT compared to traditional high-volume set.

Purpose: To assess changes in swimming performance, anthropometrics, kinematics, energetics, and strength after 5-week training cessation., Methods: Twenty-one trained and highly trained swimmers (13 males: 17.4 [3.1] y; 50-m front crawl 463 [77] FINA points; 8 females: 16.7 [1.7] y; 50-m front crawl 535 [48] FINA points) performed a 50-m front-crawl all-out swim test, dryland and pool-based strength tests, and 10-, 15-, 20-, and 25-m front-crawl all-out efforts for anaerobic critical velocity assessment before and after a 5-week training cessation. Heart rate and oxygen uptake (V˙O2) were continuously measured before and after the 50-m swim test (off-kinetics)., Results: Performance was impaired 1.9% (0.54 s) for males (P = .007, d = 0.91) and 2.9% (0.89 s) for females (P = .033, d = 0.93). Neither the anthropometrical changes (males: r2 = .516, P = .077; females: r2 = .096, P = .930) nor the physical activities that each participant performed during the off-season (males: r2 = .060, P = .900; females: r2 = .250, P = .734) attenuated performance impairments. Stroke rate and clean swimming speed decreased (P < .05), despite similar stroke length and stroke index (P > .05). Blood lactate concentrations remained similar (P > .05), but V˙O2 peak decreased in females (P = .04, d = 0.85). Both sexes showed higher heart rate before and after the 50-m swim test after 5 weeks (P < .05). Anaerobic metabolic power deterioration was only observed in males (P = .035, d = 0.65). Lower in-water force during tethered swimming at zero speed was observed in males (P = .033, d = 0.69). Regarding dryland strength, lower-body impairments were observed for males, while females showed upper-body impairments (P < .05)., Conclusions: A 5-week training cessation yielded higher heart rate in the 50-m front crawl, anaerobic pathways, and dryland strength impairments. Coaches should find alternatives to minimize detraining effects during the off-season.

Swimmers take great advantage by reducing the drag forces either in passive or active conditions. The purpose of this work is to determine the frontal area of swimmers by means of an automated vision system. The proposed algorithm is automated and also allows to determine lateral pose of the swimmer for training purposes. In this way, a step towards the determination of the instantaneous active drag is reached that could be obtained by correlating the effective frontal area of the swimmer to the velocity. This article shows a novel algorithm for estimating the frontal and lateral area in comparison with other models. The computing time allows to obtain a reasonable online representation of the results. The development of an automated method to obtain the frontal surface area during swimming increases the knowledge of the temporal fluctuation of the frontal surface area in swimming. It would allow the best monitoring of a swimmer in their swimming training sessions. Further works will present the complete device, which allows to track the swimmer while acquiring the images and a more realistic model of conventional active drag ones.

Background: The swimming community has shown considerable interest in using dry-land warm-ups as a method of impacting performance. This study compared the effects of high-resistance pull-over and swimming warm-up in semi-tethered resisted swimming., Methods: An incremental-load semi-tethered swimming test was individually administered in 20 national-competitive swimmers to determine the load maximizing swimming power. In different sessions, participants tested such a load 6 min after a swimming warm-up (SWU) or a dry-land warm-up (DLWU: 3 pull-over reps at 85% of the one-repetition maximum). Kinetic variables (velocity, force, acceleration, impulse, power rate of force development [RFD] and intra-cycle variation), were obtained with a linear encoder through trapezoidal integration regarding time. Kinematic variables (distance, time, stroke-rate and stroke-length), were obtained by video recordings. The differences between protocols were observed by paired-samples t-test (ANOVA). Pearson's coefficient explored correlations between kinetics and kinematics variables; significance was set at P<0.05., Results: DLWU increased RFD (34.52±16.55 vs. 31.29±13.70 N/s; Δ=9.35%) and stroke-rate (64.70±9.84 vs. 61.56±7.07 Hz; Δ=5.10%) compared to SWU, but decreased velocity, force, acceleration, impulse and power. During the incremental-load test velocity and power were higher than obtained after SWU (1.21±0.14 vs. 1.17±0.12 m/s; Δ=3.06%), (51.38±14.93 vs. 49.98±15.40 W; Δ=2.72%), suggesting enhancements prompted by the test itself. Correlations between stroke-length with impulse (r=0.76) and power (r=0.75) associated kinetics with kinematics., Conclusions: Potentiation responses were present after the dry-land warm-up. However, swimmers may benefit more from submaximal prolonged conditioning activities such as resisted swimming rather than high-resistance dry-land sets to obtain performance enhancements.

Cuenca-Fernández, F, Ruiz-Teba, A, López-Contreras, G, and Arellano, R. Effects of 2 types of activation protocols based on postactivation potentiation on 50-m freestyle performance. J Strength Cond Res 34(11): 3284-3292, 2020-Postactivation potentiation (PAP) is a phenomenon which improves muscle contractility, strength, and speed in sporting performances through previously applied maximal or submaximal loads on the muscle system. This study aimed to assess the effects of 2 types of activation protocols based on PAP, on sprint swimming performance. A repeated-measures design was used to compare 3 different scenarios before a 50-m race. First, all of the participants performed a standard warm-up (SWU), consisting of a 400-m swim followed by dynamic stretching. This protocol acted as the control. Subsequently, the swimmers were randomly assigned into 2 groups: the swimmers in the first group performed the SWU followed by a PAP one-repetition maximum warm-up (RMWU), consisting of 3 "lunge" and 3 "arm stroke" repetitions, both at 85% of the one-repetition maximum. The swimmers in the second group performed the SWU followed by a PAP eccentric flywheel warm-up (EWU), consisting of one set of 4 repetitions of exercises of both the lower and upper limbs on an adapted eccentric flywheel at the maximal voluntary contraction. The time required for the swimmers to swim 5 and 10 m was shorter with the PAP protocols. The swimming velocity of the swimmers who underwent the EWU and RMWU protocols was faster at 5 and 10 m. The best total swimming time was not influenced by any of the protocols. When isolating swimming (excluding start performance and turn), best time was achieved with the SWU and RMWU compared with EWU (SWU: 20.86 ± 0.95 seconds; EWU: 21.25 ± 1.12 seconds; RMWU: 20.97 ± 1.22 seconds). In conclusion, a warm-up based on PAP protocols might exert an influence on performance in the first meters of a 50-m race. Nevertheless, other factors, such as fatigue, could modify swimming patterns and yield results contradictory to those of the desired task.

This study aimed to assess the effects of post-activation potentiation in the strength related variables of a kick start. Thirteen competitive swimmers performed three kick starts after a standardized warm up (denoted USUAL) and another after inducing post-activation through five isotonic repetitions on an eccentric flywheel (denoted PAP). A T-test was used to quantify differences between USUAL and PAP warm up. The best trial of each subject achieved by natural conditions (denoted PEAK) was compared with data obtained after PAP. An instrumented starting block with independent triaxial force plates, collected the strength variables related with the impulse at take off. Improvements in the vertical components of force were observed after PAP compared with USUAL, meanwhile no differences were detected on the horizontal components of it. The velocity at take off was higher after PAP compared with USUAL (4.32 ± 0.88 vs 3.93 ± 0.60 m*s-1; p = 0.02). No differences in force or velocity were detected comparing PAP with PEAK (4.13 ± 0.62 m*s-1, p = 0.11). The PAP warm-up increased vertical force and it was transferred to a higher resultant velocity at take-off. This improvement would equal the best result possible obtained in natural conditions after some trials.

Fifteen trained athletes were assessed for postactivation performance enhancement (PAPE) of squat jumps (SJs) and power push-ups (PPUs) following upper body activation, lower body activation, upper and lower body activation, and rest. SJ improved similarly across all 4 conditions. PPU could not be assessed. Since the test protocol of SJ and PPU involved upper and lower body activation and caused PAPE in SJ, future work is required to determine if a nonlocalized PAPE effect exists.

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of 2 protocols of postactivation potentiation (PAP) on swimming start perfomance (SS). Fourteen trained swimmers (10 men and 4 women) volunteered for this study. An intragroup design of randomized repetitive measurements was applied. A previous SS trial, performed after a standard warm-up (SWU), served as a reference. Two methods of PAP, performed after 1 hour of rest, were randomly added to the SWU: (a) 3 lunges at 85% of 1 repetition maximum (LWU) and (b) 4 repetitions on the flywheel device YoYo squat (YWU). Swimmers were tested in an SS 8 minutes after the PAP warm-ups. Kinematic variables were collected using 3 underwater digital video cameras fixed poolside and operating at 25 Hz, and 1 high-speed camera focused on the block and operating at 300 Hz. Data obtained from the video analysis were processed using a repeated measures analysis of the variance. The mean horizontal velocity of the swimmer's flight improved after both PAP methods, with the greatest improvement after YWU (F2,12 = 47.042, p < 0.001; SWU = 3.63 ± 0.11; LWU = 4.15 ± 0.122; YWU = 4.89 ± 0.12 m·s). After YWU, it took the subjects less time to cover a distance of 5 m (F2,12 = 24.453, p < 0.001) and 15 m (F2,12 = 4.262, p < 0.04). Subjects also achieved a higher mean angular velocity of the knee extension (F2,12 = 23.286, p < 0.001) and a reduction of the time on the block (F2,12 = 6.595, p ≤ 0.05). These results demonstrate that muscle performance in the execution of an SS is enhanced after a warm-up with specific PAP protocols. YWU leads to the greatest improvement in the performance of the swimmer's start and, therefore, may be especially beneficial in short events.

The effects of pre-activation exercises on undulatory underwater swimming (UUS) have not been studied. This research aimed to: 1) assess the effects of a jumping-exercise strategy upon UUS performance and kinematics variables; 2) test the different effects on males and females, and; 3) to explore if stronger participants exhibit greater post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE). Ninety-two age-group national level swimmers randomly assigned into control (17 males and 18 females) and experimental groups (27 males and 30 females) took part in a cross-sectional study designed to test two maximal 15-m UUS performance efforts. The experimental group performed four maximal tuck jumps before the first or the second UUS effort. Performance and kinematics variables were analyzed using instantaneous velocity data via speedometer. Maximal lower-limbs force was obtained during a countermovement jump through a linear-encoder. Two-way repeated measures ANOVA test and linear regression analysis were used to explore variable interactions between baseline and PAPE, and the association between the PAPE response and strength of the swimmers, respectively. Despite trends toward improvements in push-off velocity (Δ = 1.33%; d = 0.12), the results did not show enhancements nor deterioration in UUS performance and kinematics after the tuck jumps. No specific PAPE responses modulated by sex or by the strength level of the swimmers were observed for this age-group (p < 0.05). Four tuck jump repetitions executed prior to diving could be insufficient to acutely enhance UUS performance. The fact that the exercise performed during warm-up was a body-weight based exercise, was possibly not enough to evoke PAPE. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This systematic review aims to summarize the effects of wearing different types of wetsuits and swimsuits in front crawl swimming performance and physiological- and biomechanical-related variables. The Web of Science, PubMed, Scopus and the Proceedings of the International Symposium on Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming databases were searched from inception to 25th March 2022. From the 1398 studies initially found, 26 studies were included in the review. The quality assessment and inter-rater reliability between researchers were conducted. The full body was the most studied wetsuit, with its use allowing 3.2–12.9% velocity increments in distances ranging from 25 to 1500 m, in incremental tests, in 5 and 30 min continuous swimming and in open water events. The sleeveless long vs. the full-body wetsuit led to a 400–800 m performance enhancement. Higher stroke rate, stroke length and stroke index were observed while using three different covered body part wetsuits vs. a regular swimsuit, with a lower energy cost being observed when swimming with the full-body wetsuit compared to a swimsuit. These findings provide useful information for coaches, swimmers and triathletes about the full-body and sleeveless long/short wetsuit use, since these three wetsuits allow improving swimming performance in different distances in diverse aquatic environments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In recent years, new portable performance monitoring devices have appeared in swimming. The study aims to establish the current validity of the FORM Goggles, Finis Stopwatch, and the Garmin Swim 2 Watch, for the partial and total times and stroke count (experiment 1; n = 17) and to compare the effect of the devices considered as valid in monitoring the pace of master swimmers (experiment 2; n = 10). The FORM Goggles and the Finis Stopwatch showed good level of agreement and accuracy (Bland Altman plots showed homoscedasticity and in most cases Lin's concordance correlation coefficient were>0.95, and the error magnitude<0.2 seconds). These systems allow better pace control compared to Garmin Swim 2, with a difference between target and actual time below 1.5 %. However, the results showed that the concurrent feedback provided by FORM Smart Swim Goggles could offer greater advantages than the traditional feedback provided via the Finis Stopwatch at the end of each series, as swimmers were closer to the target time (p < 0.05). In conclusion both the FORM Goggles and the Finis Stopwatch, showed a good validity and could serve for performance monitoring in swimming, allowing the Form Goggles better pace control. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In swimming, the beneficial effects of the in-water warm-up are often undermined by the long transition periods before competition (≥ 20 min). For that reason, studies comparing the effects of in-water warm-ups followed by dryland activities have been conducted in the swimming literature. This has brought conflicting evidence due to large combinations of supervised and unsupervised warm-up procedures used. Therefore, a scoping review was performed to discuss (1) why warm-up strategies are important for competitive swimming; to identify (2) what are the different warm-up approaches available in the literature, and; to establish (3) what are the main conclusions, considerations and gaps that should be addressed in further research to provide clearer guidance for interventions. The search was conducted on PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus databases. To be considered eligible, studies must have assessed acute short-term responses of warm-up procedures in swimmers by using randomized controlled trials or pre-post study designs. A total of 42 articles were included in this review. The effectiveness of warm-up responses was evaluated based on the inclusion or not of warm-up, the type of conditioning activity (in-water exercise, in-water exercise combined with dryland or dryland exercise only), its duration, and intensity. (1) Warm-up mechanisms have been mainly related to temperature changes associated to cardiovascular adaptations and short-term specific neuromuscular adaptations. Thus, maintaining muscle activity and body temperature during the transition phase immediately prior to competition could help swimmers' performance; (2) the most common approach before a race usually included a moderate mileage of in-water warm-up (~ 1000 m) performed at an intensity of ≤ 60% of the maximal oxygen consumption, followed by dryland protocols to keep the muscle activity and body temperature raised during the transition phase. Dryland activities could only optimize performance in sprint swimming if performed after the in-water warm-up, especially if heated clothing elements are worn. Using tethered swimming and hand-paddles during warm-ups does not provide superior muscular responses to those achieved by traditional in-water warm-ups, possibly because of acute alterations in swimming technique. In contrast, semi-tethered resisted swimming may be considered as an appropriate stimulus to generate post-activation performance enhancements; (3) nothing has yet been investigated in backstroke, butterfly or individual medley, and there is a paucity of research on the effects of experimental warm-ups over distances greater than 100 m. Women are very under-represented in warm-up research, which prevents conclusions about possible sex-regulated effects on specific responses to the warm-up procedures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study explored in the 50m races of the four swimming strokes the performance parameters and/or technical variables that determined the differences between swimmers who reach the finals and those who do not. A total of 322 performances retrieved from the 2021 Budapest European championships were the focus of this study. The results of the performances achieved during the finals compared to the heats showed that the best swimmers did not excel during the heats, as a significant progression of performance was observed in most of the strokes as the competition progressed. Specifically, combining men and women, the swimmers had in freestyle a mean coefficient of variation (CV) of ~0.6%, with a mean range of performance improvement (Δ%) of Δ = ~0.7%; in breaststroke a mean CV of ~0.5% and Δ = −0.2%; in backstroke a mean CV of ~0.5% and Δ = −0.6%, and; in butterfly a mean CV of ~0.7% and Δ = −0.9%. For all strokes, it was a reduction of the underwater phase with the aim of increasing its speed. However, this result was not always transferred to the final performance. In any case, most of the swimmers tried to make improvements from the start of the race up to 15 m. Furthermore, the swimmers generated an overall increase in stroke rate as the rounds progressed. However, a decrease in stroke length resulted and, this balance appeared to be of little benefit to performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to 1) examine the associations between two swim-specific measures of anaerobic performance and dry-land strength-based variables; 2) study the association between the aforementioned variables with swimming performance and its kinematics; 3) analyse sex-induced differences. Twenty-three regional-national swimmers performed five countermovement-jumps and pull-ups, 50-m front crawl, two 30-s tethered-swimming tests at 0 and 1.124 m·s−1 water flow speed. Moreover, 10, 15, 20, and 25-m maximal front crawl were performed to determine anaerobic critical velocity (AnCV). The AnCV was positively correlated with tethered swimming variables in both conditions and dry-land-based variables in both sexes (p < 0.05). Tethered-swimming variables in both conditions were correlated with pull-ups' average propulsive force in males (p < 0.05). 50-m swimming performance was positively associated with AnCV, tethered-swimming variables, countermovement-jump height, and pull-ups' average propulsive force for both sexes (p < 0.05). Stroke rate (SR) was positively associated with AnCV in males and females (p < 0.05). Stroke length was correlated with tethered-swimming variables in males (p < 0.05). Except for SR, males presented higher values than females (p < 0.05). Depending on the conditions of their training environment, coaches might use the AnCV and tethered-swimming variables as interchangeable tools for evaluating anaerobic performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim was to analyse the influence of the breaststroke underwater phase on 50 and 100 m performance. A total of 108 performances in 50 m (61 males and 47 females), and 126 performances in 100 m (71 males and 55 females) were recorded during the 2019 Short-course National Spanish Championship. The underwater swimming time, distance and velocity were analysed after the start and turns. Pearson correlation coefficients (r) and regression analysis were applied to compute the relation between the variables. The relative contribution (%) to final time and the differences between events and gender were studied through independent samples t-test (p < 0.05). High correlations were obtained for both events and genders between start time and final time (r = 0.76–0.91). The emersion velocity was higher in 50 m than in 100 m (p < 0.001; d > 1.0) and in males (50 m: 2.18 ± 0.10 m·s−1; 100 m: 1.87 ± 0.08 m·s−1) than in females (50 m: 1.92 ± 0.09 m·s−1: 100 m: 1.71 ± 0.08 m·s−1). Performance in both events was influenced significantly by turn velocity (r ≥ −0.85), and combined with the start, contributed to around 55% of the final time. Coaches should optimise the underwater phases of start and turns on breaststroke performance in short-course. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The influence of acute exercise on sensory sensitivity (SS) differs according to the type and duration of exercise performed. In the present study, we assessed changes on SS soon after a maximal dynamic apnoea. Methods: Thirty-nine experienced male breath-hold divers were recruited. Critical flicker fusion frequency (CFFF) thresholds were used to measure SS. Thresholds were determined before and after a maximal dynamic apnoea. Immediately after surfacing, heart rate and oxygen saturation (SpO2) were recorded for two minutes. Results: After maximal dynamic apnoea, SpO2 was significantly decreased (from mean 97.3% pre-dive to mean 63.1% postdive; P < 0.0001; η² P = 0.86), but this acute hypoxaemia did not trigger changes in SS (post-dive value 102% of baseline; P = 0.22; η² P = 0.03). Pearson correlation analysis revealed a moderate association between SS with swimming speed (r = 0.423) and apnoea time (r = -0.404). Conclusions: A maximal dynamic apnoea did not produce changes in central nervous system fatigue or cortical arousal. We found no relationship between the hypoxaemia level reached after a maximal apnoea and changes in the CFFF thresholds. This study suggests that the time of exposure to hypoxia during a maximal voluntary apnoea is not enough to produce changes in SS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The aim was to compare the effects of two different types of concurrent feedback administration on biomechanical performance during a swimming-specific task. Material and methods: A counterbalanced repeated measures design was used to compare the execution of the butterfly stroke (the propulsion phase only) on a modified Smith machine. Twenty repetitions were performed in each condition of feedback (visual vs. verbal). Fourteen college swimmers (age x¯ = 22.21 ±1.85 years, height x¯ = 173.71 ±8.65 cm, mass x¯ = 71.32 ±10.64 kg) were recruited. An incremental force test was administered for each participant to determine the mean propulsive velocity in which maximal power was produced. Feedback addressed correct execution velocity of the pulling movement that corresponded to the maximal power production as determined in an incremental force test. Results: T testing revealed no statistically significant differences between the verbal and visual feedback conditions. Visual feedback elicited a correct response in 76.11% of total feedback compared with 72.06% in the verbal feedback condition. Conclusions: Considering total feedback response, the visual feedback condition elicited 4.05% more correct responses than verbal feedback. However, this difference did not attain statistical significance and, therefore, the underlying hypothesis could not be confirmed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study aimed to determine elite swimmers’ pacing strategy in the 3000 m event and to analyse the associated performance variability and pacing factors. Forty-seven races were performed by 17 male and 13 female elite swimmers in a 25 m pool (20.7 ± 2.9 years; 807 ± 54 FINA points). Lap performance, clean swim velocity (CSV), water break time (WBT), water break distance (WBD), stroke rate (SR), stroke length (SL) and stroke index (SI) were analysed including and excluding the first (0–50 m) and last lap (2950–3000 m). The most common pacing strategy adopted was parabolic. Lap performance and CSV were faster in the first half of the race compared to the second half (p < 0.001). WBT, WBD, SL and SI were reduced (p < 0.05) in the second half compared to the first half of the 3000 m when including and excluding the first and last laps for both sexes. SR increased in the second half of the men’s race when the first and last laps were excluded. All studied variables showed significant variation between the two halves of the 3000 m, the highest variation being obtained in WBT and WBD, suggesting that fatigue negatively affected swimming kinematics. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]