Search

Importance: Despite the widespread use of systemic antibiotics to prevent infections in surgically treated patients with fracture, high rates of surgical site infection persist., Objective: To examine the effect of intrawound vancomycin powder in reducing deep surgical site infections., Design, Setting, and Participants: This open-label randomized clinical trial enrolled adult patients with an operatively treated tibial plateau or pilon fracture who met the criteria for a high risk of infection from January 1, 2015, through June 30, 2017, with 12 months of follow-up (final follow-up assessments completed in April 2018) at 36 US trauma centers., Interventions: A standard infection prevention protocol with (n = 481) or without (n = 499) 1000 mg of intrawound vancomycin powder., Main Outcomes and Measures: The primary outcome was a deep surgical site infection within 182 days of definitive fracture fixation. A post hoc comparison assessed the treatment effect on gram-positive and gram-negative-only infections. Other secondary outcomes included superficial surgical site infection, nonunion, and wound dehiscence., Results: The analysis included 980 patients (mean [SD] age, 45.7 [13.7] years; 617 [63.0%] male) with 91% of the expected person-time of follow-up for the primary outcome. Within 182 days, deep surgical site infection was observed in 29 of 481 patients in the treatment group and 46 of 499 patients in the control group. The time-to-event estimated probability of deep infection by 182 days was 6.4% in the treatment group and 9.8% in the control group (risk difference, -3.4%; 95% CI, -6.9% to 0.1%; P = .06). A post hoc analysis of the effect of treatment on gram-positive (risk difference, -3.7%; 95% CI, -6.7% to -0.8%; P = .02) and gram-negative-only (risk difference, 0.3%; 95% CI, -1.6% to 2.1%; P = .78) infections found that the effect of vancomycin powder was a result of its reduction in gram-positive infections., Conclusions and Relevance: Among patients with operatively treated tibial articular fractures at a high risk of infection, intrawound vancomycin powder at the time of definitive fracture fixation reduced the risk of a gram-positive deep surgical site infection, consistent with the activity of vancomycin., Trial Registration: ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT02227446.

Fracture-related infection (FRI) is a serious complication following musculoskeletal trauma. Accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment depend on retrieving adequate deep tissue biopsies for bacterial culture. The aim of this cohort study was to compare intraoperative tissue cultures obtained by the Reamer-Irrigator-Aspirator system (RIA)-system against standard tissue cultures obtained during the same surgical procedure. All patients had long bone fractures of the lower limbs and were assigned to the FRI or Control group based on the FRI consensus definition. The FRI group consisted of 24 patients with confirmed FRI and the Control group consisted of 21 patients with aseptic nonunion or chronic pain (in the absence of other suggestive/confirmatory criteria). Standard tissue cultures and cultures harvested by the RIA-system showed similar results. In the FRI group, standard tissue cultures and RIA cultures revealed relevant pathogens in 67% and 71% of patients, respectively. Furthermore, in four FRI patients, cultures obtained by the RIA-system revealed additional relevant pathogens that were not found by standard tissue culturing, which contributed to the optimization of the treatment plan. In the Control group, there were no false-positive RIA culture results. As a proof-of-concept, this cohort study showed that the RIA-system could have a role in the diagnosis of FRI as an adjunct to standard tissue cultures. Since scientific evidence on the added value of the RIA-system in the management of FRI is currently limited, further research on this topic is required before its routine application in clinical practice., (© 2020 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals LLC.)

Fracture-related infection (FRI) remains a challenging complication that creates a heavy burden for orthopaedic trauma patients, their families and treating physicians, as well as for healthcare systems. Standardization of the diagnosis of FRI has been poor, which made the undertaking and comparison of studies difficult. Recently, a consensus definition based on diagnostic criteria for FRI was published. As a well-established diagnosis is the first step in the treatment process of FRI, such a definition should not only improve the quality of published reports but also daily clinical practice. The FRI consensus group recently developed guidelines to standardize treatment pathways and outcome measures. At the center of these recommendations was the implementation of a multidisciplinary team (MDT) approach. If such a team is not available, it is recommended to refer complex cases to specialized centers where a MDT is available and physicians are experienced with the treatment of FRI. This should lead to appropriate use of antimicrobials and standardization of surgical strategies. Furthermore, an MDT could play an important role in host optimization. Overall two main surgical concepts are considered, based on the fact that fracture fixation devices primarily target fracture consolidation and can be removed after healing, in contrast to periprosthetic joint infection were the implant is permanent. The first concept consists of implant retention and the second consists of implant removal (healed fracture) or implant exchange (unhealed fracture). In both cases, deep tissue sampling for microbiological examination is mandatory. Key aspects of the surgical management of FRI are a thorough debridement, irrigation with normal saline, fracture stability, dead space management and adequate soft tissue coverage. The use of local antimicrobials needs to be strongly considered. In case of FRI, empiric broad-spectrum antibiotic therapy should be started after tissue sampling. Thereafter, this needs to be adapted according to culture results as soon as possible. Finally, a minimum follow-up of 12 months after cessation of therapy is recommended. Standardized patient outcome measures purely focusing on FRI are currently not available but the patient-reported outcomes measurement information system (PROMIS) seems to be the preferred tool to assess the patients' short and long-term outcome. This review summarizes the current general principles which should be considered during the whole treatment process of patients with FRI based on recommendations from the FRI Consensus Group.Level of evidence: Level V.

Background: Both fracture-related infections (FRIs) and periprosthetic joint infections (PJIs) include orthopaedic implant-associated infections. However, key aspects of management differ due to the bone and soft tissue damage in FRIs and the option of removing the implant after fracture healing. In contrast to PJIs, research and guidelines for diagnosis and treatment in FRIs are scarce., Objectives: This narrative review aims to update clinical microbiologists, infectious disease specialists and surgeons on the management of FRIs., Sources: A computerized search of PubMed was performed to identify relevant studies. Search terms included 'Fracture' and 'Infection'. The reference lists of all retrieved articles were checked for additional relevant references. In addition, when scientific evidence was lacking, recommendations are based on expert opinion., Content: Pathogenesis, prevention, diagnosis and treatment of FRIs are presented. Whenever available, specific data of patients with FRI are discussed., Implications: Management of patients with FRI should take into account FRI-specific features. Treatment pathways should implement a multidisciplinary approach to achieve a good outcome. Recently, international consensus guidelines were developed to improve the quality of care for patients suffering from this severe complication, which are highlighted in this review., (Copyright © 2019 European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases. Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Fracture-related infection (FRI) is a severe complication after bone injury and can pose a serious diagnostic challenge. Overall, there is a limited amount of scientific evidence regarding diagnostic criteria for FRI. For this reason, the AO Foundation and the European Bone and Joint Infection Society proposed a consensus definition for FRI to standardize the diagnostic criteria and improve the quality of patient care and applicability of future studies regarding this condition. The aim of this article was to summarize the available evidence and provide recommendations for the diagnosis of FRI. For this purpose, the FRI consensus definition will be discussed together with a proposal for an update based on the available evidence relating to the diagnostic value of clinical parameters, serum inflammatory markers, imaging modalities, tissue and sonication fluid sampling, molecular biology techniques, and histopathological examination. Second, recommendations on microbiology specimen sampling and laboratory operating procedures relevant to FRI will be provided. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE:: Diagnostic Level V. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Musculoskeletal infections (MSKI) remain the bane of orthopedic surgery, and result in grievous illness and inordinate costs that threaten healthcare systems. As prevention, diagnosis, and treatment has remained largely unchanged over the last 50 years, a 2nd International Consensus Meeting on Musculoskeletal Infection (ICM 2018, https://icmphilly.com) was completed. Questions pertaining to all areas of MSKI were extensively researched to prepare recommendations, which were discussed and voted on by the delegates using the Delphi methodology. The questions, including the General Assembly (GA) results, have been published (GA questions). However, as critical outcomes include: (i) incidence and cost data that substantiate the problems, and (ii) establishment of research priorities; an ICM 2018 research workgroup (RW) was assembled to accomplish these tasks. Here, we present the result of the RW consensus on the current and projected incidence of infection, and the costs per patient, for all orthopedic subspecialties, which range from 0.1% to 30%, and $17,000 to $150,000. The RW also identified the most important research questions. The Delphi methodology was utilized to initially derive four objective criteria to define a subset of the 164 GA questions that are high priority for future research. Thirty-eight questions (23% of all GA questions) achieved the requisite > 70% agreement vote, and are highlighted in this Consensus article within six thematic categories: acute versus chronic infection, host immunity, antibiotics, diagnosis, research caveats, and modifiable factors. Finally, the RW emphasizes that without appropriate funding to address these high priority research questions, a 3rd ICM on MSKI to address similar issues at greater cost is inevitable., (© 2019 Orthopaedic Research Society. Published by Wiley Periodicals, Inc.)

Background: Postoperative sepsis is associated with high mortality and the national costs of septicemia exceed those of any other diagnosis. While numerous studies in the basic orthopedic science literature suggest that traumatic injuries facilitate the development of sepsis, it is currently unclear whether orthopedic trauma patients are at increased risk. The purpose of this study was thus to assess the incidence of sepsis and determine the risk factors that significantly predicted septicemia following orthopedic trauma surgery., Materials and Methods: 56,336 orthopedic trauma patients treated between 2006 and 2013 were identified in the ACS-NSQIP database. Documentation of postoperative sepsis/septic shock, demographics, surgical variables, and preoperative comorbidities was collected. Chi-squared analyses were used to assess differences in the rates of sepsis between trauma and nontrauma groups. Binary multivariable regressions identified risk factors that significantly predicted the development of postoperative septicemia in orthopedic trauma patients., Results: There was a significant difference in the overall rates of both sepsis and septic shock between orthopedic trauma (1.6%) and nontrauma (0.5%) patients (p < 0.001). For orthopedic trauma patients, ventilator use (OR = 15.1, p = 0.002), history of pain at rest (OR = 2.8, p = 0.036), and prior sepsis (OR = 2.6, p < 0.001) were significantly associated with septicemia. Statistically predictive, modifiable comorbidities included hypertension (OR = 2.1, p = 0.003) and the use of corticosteroids (OR = 2.1, p = 0.016)., Conclusions: There is a significantly greater incidence of postoperative sepsis in the trauma cohort. Clinicians should be aware of these predictive characteristics, may seek to counsel at-risk patients, and should consider addressing modifiable risk factors such as hypertension and corticosteroid use preoperatively. Level of evidence Level III.

Purpose: Length of stay (LOS) is a major driver of cost and quality of care. A bundled payment system makes it essential for orthopaedic surgeons to understand factors that increase a patient's LOS. Yet, minimal data regarding predictors of LOS currently exist. Using the ACS-NSQIP database, this is the first study to identify risk factors for increased LOS for orthopaedic trauma patients and create a personalized LOS calculator., Methods: All orthopaedic trauma surgery between 2006 and 2013 were identified from the ACS-NSQIP database using CPT codes. Patient demographics, pre-operative comorbidities, anatomic location of injury, and post-operative in-hospital complications were collected. To control for individual patient comorbidities, a negative binomial regression model evaluated hospital LOS after surgery. Betas (β), were determined for each pre-operative patient characteristic. We selected significant predictors of LOS (p < 0.05) using backwards stepwise elimination., Results: 49,778 orthopaedic trauma patients were included in the analysis. Deep incisional surgical site infections and superficial surgical site infections were associated with the greatest percent change in predicted LOS (β = 1.2760 and 1.2473, respectively; p < 0.0001 for both). A post-operative LOS risk calculator was developed based on the formula: [Formula: see text]., Conclusions: Utilizing a large prospective cohort of orthopaedic trauma patients, we created the first personalized LOS calculator based on pre-operative comorbidities, post-operative complications and location of surgery. Future work may assess the use of this calculator and attempt to validate its utility as an accurate model. To improve the quality measures of hospitals, orthopaedists must employ such predictive tools to optimize care and better manage resources.

Patients surgically treated for infection after extremity fractures are typically discharged with a 6- to 12-week antibiotic regimen. Intravenous (IV) antibiotics are associated with significant cost and potential complications of deep vein thrombosis, line clotting, and sepsis. Many of the pathogens that cause musculoskeletal infection have both oral (PO) and IV antibiotic options with adequate bioavailability and antibacterial effect, yet IV antibiotics remain the standard of care absent evidence that PO options are clinically as efficacious. The POvIV study is a prospective, multicenter, randomized trial to compare PO with IV antibiotic therapy in patients with postoperative wound infections after extremity fractures. Patients between the ages of 18 and 84 who have a culture-positive surgical site infection after internal fixation for fracture repair or arthrodesis are approached for this study, and if they provide consent, are randomly assigned to receive either PO or IV antibiotics. Antibiotic selection is based on culture and sensitivity results. Randomization determines the route of administration. Patients are followed for 1 year after study enrollment. This study will be the largest prospective randomized trial to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of PO antibiotic use for treatment of postoperative wound infections. Results will inform clinician decisions on antibiotic delivery in patients with postoperative wound infections.

Background: Hyperglycemia in nondiabetic patients outside the intensive care unit is not well defined. We evaluated the relationship of hyperglycemia and surgical site infection (SSI) in stable nondiabetic patients with orthopedic injuries., Methods: We conducted a prospective observational cohort study at a single academic Level 1 trauma center over 9 months (Level II evidence for therapeutic/care management). We included patients 18 years or older with operative orthopedic injuries and excluded patients with diabetes, corticosteroid use, multisystem injuries, or critical illness. Demographics, medical comorbidities (American Society of Anesthesiologists class), body mass index, open fractures, and number of operations were recorded. Fingerstick glucose values were obtained twice daily. Hyperglycemia was defined as a fasting glucose value greater than or equal to 125 mg/dL or a random value greater than or equal to 200 mg/dL on more than one occasion before the diagnosis of SSI. Glycosylated hemoglobin level was obtained from hyperglycemic patients; those with glycosylated hemoglobin level of 6.0 or greater were considered occult diabetic patients and were excluded. SSI was defined by a positive intraoperative culture at reoperation within 30 days of the index case., Results: We enrolled 171 patients. Of these 171, 40 (23.4%) were hyperglycemic; 7 of them were excluded for occult diabetes. Of the 164 remaining patients, 33 were hyperglycemic (20.1%), 50 had open fractures (6 Type I, 22 Type II, 22 Type III), and 12 (7.3%) had SSI. Hyperglycemic patients were more likely to develop SSI (7 of 33 [21.2%] vs. 5 of 131 [3.8%], p = 0.003). Open fractures were associated with SSI (7 of 50 [14%] vs. 5 of 114 [4.4%], p = 0.047) but not hyperglycemia (10 of 50 [20.0%] vs. 23 of 114 [20.2%], p = 0.98). There was no significant difference between infected and noninfected patients in terms of age, sex, race, American Society of Anesthesiologists class, obesity (body mass index > 29), tobacco use, or number of operations., Conclusion: Stress hyperglycemia was associated with SSI in this prospective observational cohort of stable nondiabetic patients with orthopedic injuries. Further prospective randomized studies are necessary to identify optimal treatment of hyperglycemia in the noncritically ill trauma population., Level of Evidence: Therapeutic study, level III.

Objectives: This study was designed to evaluate risk factors of infection after bicondylar tibial plateau fractures. We hypothesized that open fractures and smoking would be associated with deep infection requiring reoperation., Design: We retrospectively identified all bicondylar (AO/OTA 41-C) tibial plateau fractures treated operatively over an 8-year period from 2002 to 2010., Setting: Single, high-volume, level 1 trauma center., Patients/participants: A total of 302 patients aged 18 years and older were identified as undergoing operative fixation of bicondylar (AO/OTA 41-C) tibial plateau fractures during this time period., Intervention: Open reduction internal fixation of bicondylar (AO/OTA 41-C) tibial plateau fractures., Main Outcome Measurements: Bivariate and multivariable logistic regression analyses were used to assess the association between patient demographics and clinical characteristics and deep infection requiring reoperation. Variables that were significant at P < 0.05 in bivariate analyses were entered into a multivariable logistic regression model., Results: Forty-three (14.2%) of 302 patients developed deep infection requiring reoperation. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) was cultured in 20 (46.5%) of 43 patients with deep infections. An external fixator was initially placed before definitive fixation in 81.4% of patients and definitive surgical treatment was delayed by an average of 17.5 days. Eighty-five (28.1%) patients required a reoperation after definitive fixation.Open fracture (OR, 3.44; P = 0.003), smoking (OR, 2.40; P = 0.02), compartment syndrome requiring fasciotomies (OR, 3.81; P = 0.01), and fractures requiring 2 incisions and 2 plates (OR, 3.19; P = 0.01) were all risk factors for deep infection requiring reoperation., Conclusions: In spite of a staged protocol with temporizing external fixation and delayed fixation, deep infection rate remained high. A disproportionate amount of MRSA (47%) was cultured from deep infections in this population, and MRSA prophylaxis may be considered. Smoking was the only patient modifiable predictor identified of deep infection, and patients should be informed of the increased risk of deep infection associated with their choice to continue smoking., Level of Evidence: Prognostic Level II. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Objectives: The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between stress-induced hyperglycemia and infectious complications in nondiabetic orthopedic trauma patients admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU)., Design: : This study was a retrospective review., Setting: The study was conducted at an academic level-1 trauma center., Patients: One hundred and eighty-seven consecutive trauma patients with isolated orthopedic injuries were studied., Intervention: : Blood glucose values during initial hospitalization were evaluated. The admission blood glucose (BG) and hyperglycemic index (HGI) were determined for each patient., Main Outcome Measures: Perioperative infectious complications: pneumonia, urinary tract infection (UTI), surgical-site infection (SSI), sepsis were the outcome measures., Results: An average of 21.5 BG values was obtained for each patient. The mean ICU and hospital length of stay was 4.0 ± 4.9 and 10.0 ± 8.1 days, respectively. Infections were recorded in 43 of 187 patients (23.0%) and SSIs specifically documented in 16 patients (8.6%). Open fractures were not associated with SSI (8/83, 9.6% vs. 8/104, 7.7%). There was no difference in admission BG or HGI and infection. However, there was a significant difference in HGI when considering SSI alone (2.1 ± 1.7 vs. 1.2 ± 1.1). Patients with an SSI received a greater amount of blood transfusions (14.9 ± 12.1 vs. 4.9 ± 7.6). No patient was diagnosed with a separate infection (ie, pneumonia, UTI, bacteremia) before SSI. There was no significant difference in injury severity score among patients with an SSI (11.1 ± 4.0 vs. 9.6 ± 3.0). Multivariable regression testing with HGI as a continuous variable demonstrated a significant relationship (odds ratio: 1.8, 95% confidence interval: 1.3-2.5) with SSI after adjusting for blood transfusions (odds ratio: 1.1, 95% confidence interval: 1.1-1.2)., Conclusions: : Stress-induced hyperglycemia demonstrated a significant independent association with SSIs in nondiabetic orthopedic trauma patients who were admitted to the ICU., Level of Evidence: Prognostic Level II. See Instructions for Authors for a complete description of levels of evidence.

Background: The impact of perioperative hyperglycemia in orthopaedic surgery is not well defined. We hypothesized that hyperglycemia is an independent risk factor for thirty-day surgical-site infection in orthopaedic trauma patients without a history of diabetes at hospital admission., Methods: Patients eighteen years of age or older with isolated orthopaedic injuries requiring acute operative intervention were studied. Patients with diabetes, injuries to other body systems, a history of corticosteroid use, or admission to the intensive care unit were excluded. Blood glucose values were obtained, and hyperglycemia was defined in two ways. First, patients with two or more blood glucose levels of ≥200 mg/dL were identified. Second, the hyperglycemic index, a validated measure of overall glucose control during hospitalization, was calculated for each patient. A hyperglycemic index of ≥1.76 (equivalent to ≥140 mg/dL) was considered to indicate hyperglycemia. The primary outcome was thirty-day surgical-site infection. Multivariable logistic regression models evaluating the effect of the markers of hyperglycemia, after controlling for open fractures, were constructed., Results: Seven hundred and ninety patients were identified. There were 268 open fractures (33.9%). Twenty-one thirty-day surgical-site infections (2.7%) were recorded. Age, race, comorbidities, injury severity, and blood transfusion were not associated with the primary outcome. Of the 790 patients, 294 (37.2%) had more than one glucose value of ≥200 mg/dL. This factor was associated with thirty-day surgical-site infection, with thirteen (4.4%) of the 294 patients with that indication of hyperglycemia having a surgical-site infection versus eight (1.6%) of the 496 patients without more than one glucose value of ≥200 mg/dL (p = 0.02). One hundred and thirty-four (17.0%) of the 790 patients had a hyperglycemic index of ≥1.76, and this was also associated was thirty-day surgical-site infection (ten [7.5%] of 134 versus eleven [1.7%] of 656; p < 0.001). Multivariable logistic regression models demonstrated that two or more blood glucose levels of ≥200 mg/dL was a risk factor for thirty-day surgical-site infection (odds ratio [OR]: 2.7, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.1 to 6.7) after adjustment for open fractures (OR: 3.2, 95% CI: 1.3 to 7.8). A second model demonstrated that a hyperglycemic index of ≥1.76 was an independent risk factor for surgical-site infection (OR: 4.9, 95% CI: 2.0 to 11.8) after controlling for open fractures (OR: 3.3, 95% CI: 1.4 to 8.3)., Conclusions: Hyperglycemia was an independent risk factor for thirty-day surgical-site infection in orthopaedic trauma patients without a history of diabetes.

Background: Tibial plateau fractures with associated compartment syndrome are severe injuries with elevated infection rates. The objective of this article was to analyze whether there is an association between infection and the timing of definitive fracture fixation in relation to fasciotomy closure or coverage., Methods: Eighty-one tibial plateau fractures, complicated by compartment syndrome, were treated with four-compartment fasciotomies and definitive fracture fixation before, at, or after fasciotomy closure or coverage., Results: Thirty extremities were treated with definitive fixation before fasciotomy closure. Seven (23%) of these extremities developed an infection. Twenty-six extremities were treated with definitive internal fixation at the time of fasciotomy closure of which three (12%) developed an infection. Twenty-five extremities were treated definitively after fasciotomy closure of which four (16%) developed an infection. There was no significant difference in the rate of infection among the groups (p = 0.5012)., Conclusions: This study demonstrated no statistical difference in the rate of infection when tibial plateau fractures with four-compartment fasciotomies were treated with open reduction and internal fixation before fasciotomy closure, at fasciotomy closure, or after fasciotomy closure. Based on the data presented herein, it seems that definitive fracture treatment can be determined by the condition of patient and by surgeon preference and experience without exposing the patient to the additional risk of infection.

Background: The development of a deep wound infection in the presence of hardware after open reduction and internal fixation presents a clinical dilemma, and there is scant literature to aid in decision-making. The purpose of the present study was to determine the prevalence of osseous union with maintenance of hardware after the development of postoperative infection within six weeks after internal fixation of a fracture., Methods: The present study included 121 patients from three level-I trauma centers, retrospectively identified from billing and trauma registries, in whom 123 postoperative wound infections with positive intraoperative cultures had developed within six weeks after internal fixation of acute fractures. The incidence of fracture union without hardware removal was calculated, and the parameters that predicted success or failure were evaluated., Results: Eighty-six patients (eighty-seven fractures; 71%) had fracture union with operative débridement, retention of hardware, and culture-specific antibiotic treatment and suppression. Predictors of treatment failure were open fracture (p = 0.03) and the presence of an intramedullary nail (p = 0.01). Several variables were not significant but trended toward an association with failure, including smoking, infection with Pseudomonas species, and involvement of the femur, tibia, ankle, or foot., Conclusions: Deep infection after internal fixation of a fracture can be treated successfully with operative débridement, antibiotic suppression, and retention of hardware until fracture union occurs. These results may be improved by patient selection based on certain risk factors and the specific bacteria and implants involved.