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A method named imprint paper spray ionization mass spectrometry (imprint-PSI-MS) has been developed and employed for the determination of pungency of peppers. A pepper fruit was cut into a triangular shape, deposited onto a triangular paper, and compressed by a homemade press tool aiming to imprint and transfer the pepper constituents onto the paper surface. Subsequently, the triangular paper was submitted to conventional PSI-MS analysis. Twelve peppers were analyzed, ranging from highly pungent to lowly pungent taste. Pepper pungency values from the Scoville scale (in Scoville heat units, SHU) were compared with the ion intensities of the capsaicin and dihydrocapsaicin compounds obtained from the imprint-PSI-MS analysis, and a correlation coefficient of 0.97 was achieved. In addition, the ion intensities of a sugar compound were monitored in all peppers, and the results were compared with the Scoville scale. Low sugar ion intensities were detected in pungent peppers, while high ion intensities were achieved in low-pungent peppers, suggesting that the pepper pungency may be determined by inversely relating pungency to sugar contents. This work demonstrates the utility of the imprint-PSI-MS method to perform rapid qualitative analyses of peppers and estimate the pungency by monitoring the pepper metabolites. Graphical abstract.

Thermostable cellulases have wide variety of applications and distinctive advantages, but their low titer becomes the hurdle in their commercialization. In the present work, an assessment of optimum levels of significant factors (temperature, moisture ratio, inoculum size, and ammonium sulfate) and the effect of their interactions on production of thermostable CMCase, FPase, and β-glucosidase by Thermoascus aurantiacus RCKK under solid-state fermentation (SSF) was carried out using central composite design (CCD) of response surface methodology (RSM). The study revealed 33, 13, and 8 % improvement in FPase, CMCase, and β-glucosidase production, respectively. Moreover, crude cellulase from T. aurantiacus RCKK efficiently hydrolyzed office waste paper, algal pulp (Gracillaria verulosa), and biologically treated wheat straw at 60 °C with sugar release of about 830 mg/ml, 285 mg/g, and 260 mg/g of the substrate, respectively. The thermostable enzyme from T. aurantiacus RCKK holds potential to be used in biofuel industry.

Sixty fungal cultures were isolated from agricultural soil, industrial soil, forest canopy soil having decomposed leaf litter and compost samples collected from different regions of India. Fifteen fungal cultures were selected qualitatively for the production of xylanase and cellulases and were identified employing ITS, NS and MNS primers. The enzyme cocktail consisting of 3811 IU g(-1) of xylanase and 9.9 IU g(-1) of cellulase from Trichoderma longibrachiatum MDU-6 was selected quantitatively for the deinking of diverse paper wastes. The enzyme production increased two fold when produced at tray level in comparison with flasks. The enzyme cocktail was effective in the deinking of old newspaper samples with significant removal of chromophores, phenolics and hydrophobic compounds and less sugar loss. While in case of examination papers and laser printed papers, ink removal was not very significant. Moreover, the sugar loss was significantly high in case of examination papers. The deinking results were further confirmed with FTIR analysis. Deinked newspaper pulp sample shows brightness of 52%, which was 9.6% high than its control sample. The ERIC value for deinked newspaper pulp was found to be 655.9 ppm. Thereafter, the deinked newspaper pulp was examined under light microscope after differential staining with safranin and malachite green and also examined under scanning and transmission electron microscope, which revealed fibrillation and perforation.

In this work, corn stover was refined by a pulp refining instrument (PFI refiner) after NaOH pretreatment under varied conditions. The quantitative characterization of the influence of PFI refining on enzymatic hydrolysis was studied, and it was proved that the enhancement of enzymatic saccharification by PFI refining of the pretreated corn stover was largely due to the significant increment of porosity of substrates and the reduction of cellulose crystallinity. Furthermore, a linear relationship between beating degree and final total sugar yields was found, and a simple way to predict the final total sugar yields by easily testing the beating degree of PFI refined corn stover was established. Therefore, this paper provided the possibility and feasibility for easily monitoring the fermentable sugar production by the simple test of beating degree, and this will be of significant importance for the monitoring and controlling of industrial production in the future.

Peaches are known for their palatable flavor and abundant nutrients. However, peaches are perishable, and the existing preservation techniques for peaches are still immature. To further extend the shelf life and prevent nutrient loss of perishable peaches under ambient temperature in summer (approximately 25–32 °C), we conducted experiments wrapping peaches (Prunus persica cv ‘Baihua’) in single- and composite-treated vegetal fibrous papers that contained calcium carbonate, phytic acid, Na-alginate and vitamin C. The pathogenic fungi that primarily caused peach decay during storage belonged to the genera of Penicillium, Botrytis, Aspergillus, Alternaria, and Rhizopus. After analyzing quality attributes, including weight loss, firmness, soluble sugar content, respiration rate, relative electric conductivity, malonaldehyde content, peroxidase activity and the decay index, we proved that vitamin C within the preservative paper greatly contributes to peach preservation. Combined with phytic acid and Na-alginate, the composite vitamin C preservative papers played significant roles in delaying fruit senescence, and 0.4% (w/v) vitamin C preservative paper with 1% Na-alginate could maintain quality and extend shelf life with the best effect. This preservation technique significantly postponed the respiration peak by 2–3 days and is a significant contribution to contemporary commercial production.

Mechanical refining has been shown to improve biomass enzymatic digestibility. In this study industrial high-yield sodium carbonate hardwood pulp was subjected to lab, pilot and industrial refining to determine if the mechanical refining improves the enzymatic hydrolysis sugar conversion efficiency differently at different refining scales. Lab, pilot and industrial refining increased the biomass digestibility for lignocellulosic biomass relative to the unrefined material. The sugar conversion was increased from 36% to 65% at 5 FPU/g of biomass with industrial refining at 67.0 kWh/t, which was more energy efficient than lab and pilot scale refining. There is a maximum in the sugar conversion with respect to the amount of refining energy. Water retention value is a good predictor of improvements in sugar conversion for a given fiber source and composition. Improvements in biomass digestibility with refining due to lab, pilot plant and industrial refining were similar with respect to water retention value.

Past studies have revealed major difficulties in applications of xylanase in the pulp and paper industry as enzymes isolated from many different species could not tolerate high temperatures or highly alkaline conditions. The thermostable xylanase A from Bacillus halodurans C-125 (C-125 xylanase A) was successfully cloned and expressed in Pichia pastoris with a yield as high as 3361 U/mL in a 2 L reactor. Its thermophilic and basophilic properties (optimal activity at 70 °C and pH 9.0), together with the fact it is cellulase-free, render this enzyme attractive for compatible applications in the pulp and paper industry. The pretreatment of wheat straw pulp with C-125 xylanase A at pH 9.0 and 70 °C for 90 min induced the release of both chromophores (Ab(237), Ab(254), Ab(280)) and hydrophobic compounds (Ab(465)) into the filtrate as well as sugar degradation. Moreover, the addition of 10 U xylanase to 1 g wheat straw pulp (dry weight) as pretreatment improved brightness by 5.2% ISO and decreased the kappa number by 5.0% when followed by hydrogen peroxide bleaching. In addition, compared with two commercial enzymes, Pulpzyme HC and AU-PE89, which are normally incorporated in ECF bleaching of wheat straw pulp, C-125 xylanase A proved to be more effective in enhancing brightness as well as preserving paper strength properties. When evaluating the physical properties of pulp samples, such as tensile index, tearing index, bursting index, and post-color (PC) number, the enzymes involved in pretreating pulps exhibited better or the same performances as chemical treatment. Compared with chemical bleaching, chlorine consumption can be significantly reduced by 10% for xylanase-pretreated wheat straw pulp while maintaining the brightness together with the kappa number at the same level. Scanning electron microscopy revealed significant surface modification of enzyme-pretreated pulp fibers with no marked fiber disruptions.

Segmented flow analysis (SFA) and ion chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection (IC-PAD) are widely used analytical techniques for the analysis of glucose, fructose, and sucrose in tobacco. In the work presented here, 27 cured tobacco leaves and 21 tobacco products were analyzed for sugars using SFA and IC. The results of these analyses demonstrated that both techniques identified the same trends in sugar content across tobacco leaf and tobacco product types. However, comparison of results between techniques was limited by the selectivity of the SFA method, which relies on the specificity of the reaction of p-hydroxybenzoic acid hydrazide (PAHBAH) with glucose and fructose to generate a detectable derivative. Sugar amines and chlorogenic acid, which are found in tobacco, are also known to react with PAHBAH to form a reaction product that interferes with the analysis of fructose and glucose. To mitigate this problem, solid phase extraction (SPE) was used to remove interferences such as sugar amines and chlorogenic acid from sample matrices prior to SFA. A combination of C18 and cation exchange solid phase extraction cartridges was used, and the results from SFA and IC analyses showed significant convergence in the results of both analytical methods. For example, the average difference between the results from the SFA and IC analyses for flue-cured tobacco samples dropped by 73% when the two-step C18/cation exchange resin sample cleanup was used.

The use of recovered paper and paper manufacturing wastes are a potentially large, concentrated, and convenient raw material for ethanol production via enzyme hydrolysis and fermentation. However, many previous studies in the area have investigated impractically high enzyme charges. In this research, low dosages of enzymes on copy paper (CP) were investigated for the conditions of 5% consistency (w/v) and 50 °C for 48 h. The removal of inorganic filler (mainly calcium carbonate) by washing prior to hydrolysis led to higher sugar yields than the unwashed CP as well as CP acidified to remove the ash. Enzyme adsorption measurement showed that both acid-soluble ash and acid-insoluble ash adsorb enzymes with a greater affinity than fibers. Drying of the fibers (termed hornification) decreased the efficiency of enzyme hydrolysis, confirming previous results. The mechanical refining at 10% consistency in a laboratory refining mill of previously dried fibers improved the sugar recovery to similar or higher levels as never-dried fibers. By plotting water retention value (WRV) versus corresponding sugar recovery, it was shown that WRV is more useful at low enzyme charges reflecting the use of refining and the reversal of hornification. For de-ashed and refined copy paper, the sugar recovery was determined to be 82% and 97% with enzyme dosages of 4 and 8 Filter Paper Unit (FPU)/g oven-dried (OD) substrate.

One organic and three alkaline hemicellulosic fractions were isolated by an ultrasound-assisted extraction which partially delignified the fast-growing poplar wood. Successive treatments were conducted with dimethyl sulfoxide under ultrasonic irradiation at 570W, 25 degrees C for 30min, 70% ethanol containing 1% NaOH, 3% NaOH and 6% NaOH at 75 degrees C for 3h, respectively. The four hemicellulosic fractions obtained were comparatively studied by sugar analysis, alkaline nitrobenzene oxidation of bound lignin, GPC, FT-IR, 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy as well as TGA and DTA. The results showed that the ultrasonic treatment and sequential extractions with three different concentrations of NaOH led to a release of 75.5% of the original hemicelluloses and 96.2% of the lignin. All four purified hemicellulose fractions contained relatively low amounts of associated lignin, ranging between 0.96 and 3.10%. In addition, the hemicellulosic fraction H(4) isolated with 6% NaOH is formed by a linear backbone of four (beta-1--4)-xylopyranosyl residues and at least one of the xylose residues is monosubstituted at C-2 by a 4-O-methylglucuronic acid, giving a typical ratio of 4-O-methyl glucuronic acid to Xyl of 1 to 4.

The cellulose-hydrolyzing strains, Sphingomonas paucimobilis MK1 and Bacillus circulans MK2, were separated from soil and were grown together in a single culture plate. Growth B. circulans MK2 in liquid culture required symbiosis with S. paucimobilis MK1. Biological pretreatment with the combined strain suspension after the liquid culture improved enzymatic hydrolysis of office paper from municipal wastes. Sugar recovery by S. paucimobilis MK1 (51%) was 1.4 times higher than that of the untreated sample (30%) and in the strain combination with B. circulans MK2, recovery was further improved by 2.5 times (75%). The sugar recovery in maximum condition was enhanced up to 94% for office paper. Furthermore, biological pretreatment effects were confirmed for more than 1 day less time. In X-ray diffraction patterns for the crystallinity of cellulose in office paper changed after biological pretreatment, the crystallinity was increased in comparison to that in untreated paper. The mechanism of biological pretreatment effect was explained by the fact that the strain acted as an endoglucanase, which hydrolyzes amorphous areas randomly.

A preparation of organic working standards for the online measurement of 13C/12C and 18O/16O ratios in biological material is presented. The organic working standards are simple and inexpensive C3 and C4 carbohydrates (sugars or cellulose) from distinct geographic origin, including white sugar, toilet and XEROX papers from Switzerland, maize from Ivory Coast, cane sugar from Brazil, papyrus from Egypt, and the core of the stem of a Cyperus papyrus plant from Kenya. These photosynthetic products were compared with International Atomic Energy standards CH-3 and CH-6 and other calibration materials. The presented working standards cover a 15 ‰ range of 13C/12C ratios and 9 ‰ for 18O/16O, with a precision 10. Revised version of a paper presented at the VIII Isotope Workshop of the European Society for Isotope Research (ESIR), 25–30 June 2005, Leipzig-Halle, Germany.

The ability of the mixture of α-linked glucose oligomers in corn syrup to function as intrafiber components of paper is statistically assessed at the 95% confidence level for two degrees of refining (257 and 402 mL CSF) of never-dried commercial softwood and hardwood/softwood pulps. Independent of the extent of refining, the replacement of the beaten fibers by corn syrup at about the 6% level does not result in a statistically significant deterioration (two-sided t -test, p = 0.05) of the ISO brightness or of the tensile, tear, burst or surface strength values of the resultant papers. The economic potential of such fiber replacement is discussed. As paper additives, the mixed α-oligomers (corn syrup), glucose and lactose perform indistinguishably.

The leaves of the agave plant are left in the field after harvesting the heads for tequila production. Different types of agave leaves were isolated, classified, and their content in the total plant determined. The usable fractions were collected and their properties determined. Of the total wet weight of the agave plant, 54% corresponds to the agave head, 32% corresponds to materials which could be usable for sugar and fiber production which leaves 14% of the wet plant without apparent utility. The fractions with higher total reducing sugars (TRS) content were the fresh fraction of partially dry leaves stuck to the head and the leaf bases with a TRS content of 16.1% and 13.1%, respectively. The highest TRS concentration (16–28%) is in the agave head which is used for tequila production. The leaves are 90–120 cm long and 8–12 cm wide and contain fiber bundles that are 23–52 cm long and 0.6–13 mm wide. The ultimate fiber length is approximately 1.6 mm with an average width of 25 μm. There are several types of leaf fibers that can be utilized depending on what part of the plant they come from and what product is desired. Agave leaf fibers were pulped using a soda pulping process and the pulp was hand formed into test sheets. Test sheets made from pulped agave leaf fibers had a breaking length comparable to paper made from both pine and eucalyptus fibers, but the tear index and burst index were lower than the other two papers.

Milox pulping of EFB was used to obtain pulps. In the first Milox stage, the influences of operating variables on pulp properties were studied and polynomial and neural fuzzy models that reproduced the experimental results with errors less than 10% were developed. Operating variables were found (93 wt.% of formic acid, 3 wt.% of hydrogen peroxide, and 165 min) that yielded acceptable pulp properties (40.5% yield, 50.3% brightness and 608 mL/g viscosity) at reasonable chemical and energy costs. The second stage was studied by subjecting the liquors of the previously optimized first stage to different treatment times. This time should be 30 min or less, to avoid a negative effect on viscosity. The residual liquor from the first Milox stage contained virtually no precipitable lignin and only low amounts of sugar (wt.%): glucose 0.71, xylose 4.22, galactose 1.19, mannose 0.22, all on original raw material dry.

Yüksek miktarda kalsiyum içeren atıksular; su boruları, kaynama kazanları ve ısı değiştiricilerde farklı biçimde çökelekler (karbonat, sülfat ve fosfat) oluşturmakta, aerobik ve anaerobik reaktörlerin arıtım performansını olumsuz etkilemektir. Bu problemleri ortadan kaldırmak için endüstrilerde kimyasal prosesler kullanılmakta ancak bu prosesi içeren reaktörlerin işletimi ve kontrolü oldukça zordur. Ayrıca arıtılmış suyun pH değerleri de yüksektir. Sulardan Ca gideriminde biyomineralizasyon iyi bir alternatif olarak görünmektedir. Biyokatalitik Kalsifikasyon Reaktörleri (BKR) endüstriyel atıksulardan Ca’u kalsit olarak gidermek için bakterilerin gerçekleştirdiği üre hidrolizi esasına dayanır. Bu çalışmada BKR’ün Ca içeren sentetik ve gerçek şeker endüstrisi atıksularından Ca giderimindeki potansiyel kullanımı araştırılmıştır. Çalışmanın başlıca aşamaları; (1) kesikli reaktörlerde Ca+2 giderimini katalizleme yeteneğine sahip çamur üretimi, (2) kesikli reaktörlerde optimum Mikrobiyal Karbonat Çökelimi (MKÇ) için uygun süre, pH değerleri, üre, Ca, biyokütle ve organik derişimleri gibi optimum koşulların belirlenmesi, (3) sürekli beslemeli sistemde optimum tasarım ve işletme parametrelerinin araştırılması, (4) YAÇYR(Yukarı Akışlı Çamur Yatak Reaktör)’de metanojenik bakteriler üzerine Ca’un etkisinin belirlenmesi, (5) Ca’lu atıksuların arıtımı için ardışık BKR/YAÇYR sisteminin araştırılması, (6) Ca’lu atıksuların YAÇYR’de arıtımında geri döngü hattına BKR’ün ilave edilmesi ile CO2 sıyırıcı sistemin modifikasyonu. Mineral ortam ve Glikoz-KOİ’sin sürekli yenilendiği inkübasyon süresinin Ca giderimine etkisinin araştırıldığı kesikli çalışmalarda optimum inkubasyon süresi 6 gün bulunmuştur. Kesikli reaktörde Ca giderimi üzerinde ürenin etkisinin araştırıldığı çalışmada optimum üre derişiminin Ca derişiminden fazla olması gerekmektedir. Kesikli reaktörde Ca giderimi üzerinde Ca derişiminin etkisinin araştırıldığı çalışmada 900 mg/L sabit üre ve 0-2500 mg/L arasında Ca derişimleri içeren sentetik atıksuda sonuçlar Ca derişimi arttıkça giderilen miktarın da arttığını göstermiştir. Kesikli reaktörde Ca giderimi üzerinde 4-10 arası değişik başlangıç pH’larının etkisinin araştırıldığı çalışmada Ca gideriminin yüksek pH’larda daha iyi olduğu, ve çökelme ile beraber alkalinitenin tükenmesi ile birlikte son pH değerlerinin tüm reaktörlerde yaklaşık aynı olduğu (pH=7) bulunmuştur. Kesikli reaktörde Ca giderimi üzerine biyokütle derişiminin etkisinin araştırıldığı çalışmada sonuçlar Ca gideriminin biyolojik aktiviteye kesinlikle bağlı olduğunu göstermiştir. Ca giderim süreci üzerinde organik madde derişiminin etkisinin araştırıldığı çalışmada Ca giderimi için en uygun derişiminin deneysel şartlarda 750 mg/L glikoz-KOİ’si olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Ca giderimi üzerinde yaklaşık 2-20 gün arasında çamur yaşlarının araştırıldığı sürekli beslemeli çalışma kalsiyum gideriminde ÇY’nın önemli bir parametre olduğunu ve 11.5 saat’lik HBS’de Ca ve KOİ giderimi için 5 gün civarında olduğunu göstermiştir. Çalışma HBS’nin önemli bir parametre olduğunu ve kalsiyumca zengin atıksulardan Ca giderimi için 5-6 saatlik HBS’nin optimum olduğunu göstermiştir. Bu HBS’nde KOİ, TN, ve Ca giderim verimleri sırasıyla % 63, % 14 ve % 72 elde edilmiştir. Elde edilen optimum ÇY ve HBS’nde 0-1500 mg/L arasında değişen glikozKOİ’sinin etkisinin araştırıldığı sürekli beslemeli çalışmada KOİ’nin düşük değerlerinin bile Ca giderimi için yeterli olduğunu göstermektedir. 5-20 mM arasında üre derişiminin 15 mM Ca içeren sentetik atıksuyu arıtan ürolitik karışık kültür üzerindeki etkisinin araştırıldığı çalışmada Ca giderimi için optimum üre derişimi 15 mM bulunmuştur. Ca içeren bir şeker fabrikasından temin edilen gerçek atıksuyun sürekli beslemeli arıtım çalışmasında YAÇYR’ün önüne ve geri döngüsüne yerleştirilen BKR’ü atıksudan Ca’u etkin şekilde gidermiştir. Sonuç olarak çalışmada önerilen MKÇ esasına dayanan BKR’ü, Ca açısından zengin endüstriyel atıksuların yeniden kullanılacağı durumlarda kullanılabilir olmakla birlikte üreden kaynaklanan azot kirliliğine neden olması en büyük dezavantajıdır., Wastewaters having high calcium content; produce precipitates of different structure (as carbonate, sulfate or phosphate) in pipelines, boilers and heat exchangers and, affects adversely to aerobic and anaerobic reactors. As a remedy to this problem, the industry typically uses chemical crystallization reactors which are efficient but often require complex monitoring and control and, as a drawback, can give rise to highly alkaline effluents. Biomineralization are emerging as alternative mechanisms for the removal of Ca from aqueous environments. Bio-catalytic Calcification Reactors (BCR) utilize microbial urea hydrolysis by bacteria for the precipitation-removal of Ca, as calcite, from industrial wastewater. In this study, potential use of BCR for Ca removal from synthetic wastewater and real sugar wastewater were investigated. The main stages of this study were; (1) production of sludge which has ability to biocatalysing of Ca2+ removal in batch reactors, (2) determination of optimal conditions such as; time, pH value, urea, Ca, biomass, and organic matter concentrations, for effective Microbial Calcium Precipitation (MCP) (3) investigation of optimum design and operational parameters of BCR reactor in continuous feeding system, (4) determination of Ca effect on methanogenic microorganisms in UASB reactor, (5) researching of sequential BCR/UASB (Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket) reactor system for treatment of Ca-rich wastewaters, (6) modification of CO2-stripper system with addition of BCR reactor installing in the recycle line at UASB treatment of Ca-rich wastewaters. In batch study, investigation of incubation time on Ca removal at synthetic wastewater where mineral medium and glucose-COD continuously refreshed, optimum incubation time was found as 6 days at these conditions. In batch study, investigation of urea effect on Ca removal, it was found that optimum urea concentration for effective Ca removal should be greater than Ca concentration required removal from water. In batch study, investigation of Ca concentration effect on Ca removal, removed Ca concentration was increased at samples containing higher Ca concentrations in synthetic wastewater with constant urea of 900 mg/L and varying Ca concentration between 0 and 2500 mg/L. In batch study, the investigation of initial pH of samples between 4-10 on calcium removal, calcium was better removed at samples with higher pH and final pHs of all samples finally were approximately same (pH=7) due to precipitation of Ca as CaCO3 and consumption of alkalinity. In batch study, investigation of biomass concentration on Ca removal, it was found that Ca removal certainly depends on biological activity. In batch study, investigation of organic matter effect on Ca removal, the most suitable concentration of glucose-COD was 750 mg/L at experimental conditions. The continuous fed study of sludge retention times between about 2 and 20 days on Ca removal showed that SRT is important parameter for Ca removal and optimum SRT was about 5 days in terms of Ca and COD removal at HRT of 11.5 hours. Study showed that HRT is important parameter and HRT of 5-6 hours is optimum for Ca removal from Ca-rich wastewaters. At this HRT, the removal efficiencies of COD, TN, and Ca were obtained a 63 %, 14 % and 72 %, respectively. At obtained optimum SRT and HRT, continuous fed study, investigation of glucose-COD between 0 and 1500 mg/L effect on Ca removal, showed that low levels of COD was also sufficient for calcium removal. The study, carried out to determine urea concentrations between 5-20 mM on ureolytic mixed culture treating synthetic wastewater containing Ca of 15 mM, showed that optimum urea concentration was found as 15 mM for effective Ca removal. In continuous study carried out with a real wastewater of a sugar fabric, BCR reactor established at prior to and recycle of UASB reactor removed efficiently Ca from wastewater. Consequently, the proposed BCR based on MCP can be used in case of reusing of treated Ca-rich industrial wastewater, however the most important disadvantage of this process is N pollution from urea., ÖNSÖZ, i – TEŞEKKÜR, iii -- İÇİNDEKİLER DİZİNİ, iv – ÖZET, vi – ABSTRACT, vii -- ŞEKİLLER DİZİNİ, viii -- ÇİZELGELER DİZİNİ, xii -- SİMGELER VE KISALTMALAR DİZİNİ, xiv -- 1. GİRİŞ, 1 -- 2. KAYNAK ÖZETLERİ, 5 -- 2.1. Kalsiyum Metalinin Özellikleri, 5 -- 2.2. Kalsiyum Bileşikleri, 5 -- 2.3. Kalsiyum Bileşiklerinin Endüstride Kullanımı ve Etkileri, 6 -- 2.4. Kalsiyum Karbonat’ın (CaCO3) Özelikleri ve Kullanım Alanları, 7 -- 2.5. Kalsiyum Hidroksit’in (Ca(OH)2) Özellikleri ve Kullanım Alanları, 8 -- 2.6. Kalsiyum Oksit’in (CaO-Kireç) Özellikleri ve Kullanım Alanları, 9 -- 2.7. Kalsiyum ve Bileşiklerinin Sağlık Etkileri, 10 -- 2.8. Endüstriyel Su Kullanımı, 11 -- 2.8.1. Kazan besleme suları, 11 -- 2.8.2. Soğutma suları, 12 -- 2.8.3. Endüstri proses suları, 14 -- 2.9. Sulardan Kalsiyum Giderim Yöntemleri, 15 -- 2.9.1. Sulardan kimyasal kalsiyum giderimi, 15 -- 2.9.1.1. Kimyasal çöktürme yöntemleri ile sertlik giderimi, 15 -- 2.9.1.2. İyon değiştirme yöntemi, 20 -- 2.9.2. Doğal mikrobiyolojik karbonat çökelim prosesleri, 21 -- 2.9.2.1. Ototrofik metabolik prosesler, 22 -- 2.9.2.2. Heterotrofik metabolik prosesler, 23 -- 2.9.2.2.1. Pasif CaCO3 çökelim prosesleri, 23 -- 2.9.2.2.2. Aktif CaCO3 çökelim prosesleri, 25 -- 2.10. Arıtım Teknolojileri Açısından Kalsiyumun Zararları, 26 -- 2.11. Kalsiyum Gideriminin Atıksu Arıtım Biyoteknolojisi Açısından Önemi, 26 -- 2.12. Çalışmanın Amacı, 27 -- 3. MATERYAL ve METOT, 29 -- 3.1. Üre Hidrolizini Gerçekleştiren Mikroorganizmaların Üretilmesi, 29 -- 3.2. Çalışmalarda Kullanılan Reaktörler, 30 -- 3.2.1. Aerobik BKR’nün özellikleri, 31 -- 3.2.2. YAÇYR’nün özellikleri, 31 -- 3.3. Çalışma Planı, 32 -- 3.3.1. Kesikli çalışmalar, 32 -- 3.3.2. Sürekli çalışmalar, 33 -- 3.3.2.1. Sürekli çalışmalarda kullanılan reaktör sistemler, 34 -- 3.3.3. Şeker fabrikası atıksuyu ile ilgili çalışmalar, 40 --3.4. Analitik Yöntemler, 42 -- 4. BULGULAR ve TARTIŞMA, 44 -- 4.1. Kesikli Çalışmalar, 44 -- 4.1.1. Zamanın kalsiyum giderimi üzerindeki etkisi, 44 -- 4.1.2. Üre miktarının kalsiyum giderimine etkisi, 47 -- 4.1.3. Kalsiyum derişiminin etkisi, 54 -- 4.1.4. Kalsiyum giderimi üzerinde pH etkisi, 60 -- 4.1.5. Kalsiyum giderimi üzerine biyokütle derişiminin etkisi, 64 -- 4.1.6. Kalsiyum giderim sürecinin üzerinde organik madde derişiminin etkisi, 68 -- 4.2. Sürekli Çalışmalar, 71 -- 4.2.1. BKR’üne çamur yaşının etkisi, 71 -- 4.2.2. BKR’üne HBS’nin etkisi, 75 -- 4.2.3. KOİ’nin BKR’ün performansı üzerindeki etkisi ,79 -- 4.2.4. Üre’nin BKR’ün performansı üzerindeki etkisi, 82 -- 4.2.5. Kalsiyumun BKR’ün performansı üzerindeki etkisi, 84 -- 4.2.6. YAÇYR performansı üzerinde kalsiyumun etkisi, 88 -- 4.2.7. BKR+YAÇYR sistemi ile simüle atıksuyun arıtımı, 93 -- 4.2.8. YAÇYR döngüsünde BKR ile simüle atıksuyun arıtımı, 95 -- 4.2.9. Kalsiyum içeren BKR’de kinetik katsayıların bulunması, 98 -- 4.3. Şeker Fabrikası Atıksuyu İle ilgili Arıtım Çalışmaları, 100 -- 4.3.1. BKR+YAÇYR sistemi ile şeker fabrikası atıksuyu arıtımı, 100 -- 4.3.2. YAÇYR döngüsünde BKR ile şeker fabrikası atıksuyu arıtımı, 102 -- 5. SONUÇ ve ÖNERİLER, 105 – KAYNAKLAR, 109 – ÖZGEÇMİŞ, 111

BACKGROUND: Bagging has been widely used to improve the commercial value of fruit. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of different light transmittance paper bags on the quality and antioxidant capacity of loquat fruit. Two loquat cultivars, Baiyu and Ninghaibai (Eriobotrya japonica Lindl.), were used for materials. One-layered white paper bags (OWPB) with ∼50% light transmittance and two-layered paper bags with a black inner layer and a grey outer layer (TGDPB) with ∼0% light transmittance were used as treatments and unbagged fruits were used as the control (CK) in this experiment. Fruit quality was determined by physicochemical characteristics, the quantity of sugar, total phenolic, flavonoid, carotenoid and vitamin C. The antioxidant capacities of the methanol extracted from the pulp were tested using three different assays. RESULTS: The results showed that bagging decreased the weight of fruit but promoted the appearance of loquat fruits. The total sugar content in the fruit bagged with OWPB was higher than in controls and in fruit bagged with TGDPB. The total phenolic and flavonoid contents were decreased by both bagging treatments, with the lowest occurring in the fruit bagged with TGDPB. Bagging also decreased the total antioxidant capacity of the fruit pulp, which was again lower in TGDPB-treated fruits than in those bagged using OWPB. Correlation analysis showed a linear relationship between total antioxidant capacity and the content of total phenolic and flavonoid. CONCLUSION: The results showed that different light transmittance bags had different effects on fruit quality and antioxidant capacity. In particular, bags with low light transmittance (TGDPB) decreased the inner quality and total antioxidant capacity of loquat fruit. All results indicated that bagging with OWPB was more suitable for maintaining the quality of the loquat fruit than bagging with TGDPB. Copyright © 2010 Society of Chemical Industry

Simultaneous saccharification and co-fermentation (SSCF) of waste paper sludge to ethanol was investigated using two recombinant xylose-fermenting microbes: Zymomonas mobilis 8b and Saccharomyces cerevisiae RWB222. S. cerevisiae RWB222 produced over 40 g/L ethanol with a yield of 0.39 g ethanol/g carbohydrate on paper sludge at 37 degrees C, while similar titers and yields were achieved by Z. mobilis 8b at 30 degrees C. Both S. cerevisiae RWB222 and Z. mobilis 8b exhibited decreasing cell viability at 37 degrees C when producing over 40 g/L ethanol. A high ethanol concentration can account for S. cerevisiae RWB222 viability loss, but ethanol concentration was not the only factor influencing Z. mobilis 8b viability loss at 37 degrees C. Over 3 g/L residual glucose was observed at the end of paper sludge SSCF by Z. mobilis 8b, and a statistical analysis revealed that a high calcium concentration originating from paper sludge, a high ethanol concentration, and a high temperature were the key interactive factors resulting in glucose accumulation. The highest ethanol yields were achieved by SSCF of paper sludge with S. cerevisiae RWB222 at 37 degrees C and Z. mobilis 8b at 30 degrees C. With good sugar consumption at 37 degrees C, S. cerevisiae RWB222 was able to gain an improvement in the polysaccharide to sugar yield compared to that at 30 degrees C, whereas Z. mobilis 8b at 30 degrees C had a lower polysaccharide to sugar yield, but a higher sugar to ethanol yield than S. cerevisiae. Both organisms under optimal conditions achieved a 19% higher overall conversion of paper sludge to ethanol than the non-xylose utilizing S. cerevisiae D5A at its optimal process temperature of 37 degrees C.

Blueberry-aronia nectar is known as a rich source of anthocyanins, which are mostly destroyed during commercial storage of the product. The factors influencing the rate of degradation are connected to the oxygen protection offered by the packaging, as well as the type of anthocyanidin and the amount of glycosylated sugar. The current study was aimed to compare the stability of total anthocyanin between glass and carton packaging as well as to determine the stability of individual anthocyanin with respect to aglycone and glycosylated sugar. The degradation rate of total anthocyanin degradation rate was 22% higher in carton packaging than glass bottle. The ranking order of the stability of individual anthocyanin with respect to aglycone was as follows (from the most to least stable): cyanindin > peonidin > petunidin > malvidin = delphinidin. The ranking order of the stability of anthocyanins with respect to glycosylated sugars was as follows (from the most to least stable): glucose > galactose > arabinose. As individual anthocyanins have different degradation rates this study can be used to determine the most stable natural colorant and the most sensitive antioxidant among the anthocyanins tested.

Thirty exopolysaccharides (EPS) produced by bacteria isolated from biofilms or slimelayers from different paper and board mills in Finland, France and Spain were subjected to size exclusion chromatography and sugar compositional analysis. High performance size exclusion chromatography (HPSEC) analysis revealed that some samples were composed of several molecular weight populations. These samples were fractionated by size exclusion chromatography and pooled accordingly. Principal components analysis (PCA) of the sugar compositions of the different pools indicated the presence of glucans and mannans caused by insufficient removal of the carbon or nitrogen source (yeast extract) from the bacteria growth medium leading to an overestimation of the glucose and mannose level in the sample, respectively. From the point of view of slime problems the EPS populations are the most important for multivariate analysis. Four groups of EPSs have been recognized by PCA analysis: a group of EPSs produced by Enterobacter and related genera similar to the regularly reported colanic acid; a group of Methylobacterium EPSs having high galactose and pyruvate levels and two groups that showed less dense clusters produced by Bacillus and related genera, showing high mannose and/or glucose levels and Klebsiella EPSs that showed galactose with rhamnose as major characteristic sugar moieties. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT‐IR) of the same samples followed by discriminant partial least squares regression (DPLS) and linear discriminant analysis (LDA) showed that, when used with a well‐defined training set, FT‐IR could be used clustering instead of time‐consuming sugar composition analysis. The Enterobacter and Methylobacetrium EPS groups could be recognized clearly. However the fact that this could hardly be done for the other two groups in the dataset indicates the importance of a larger and well‐defined training or calibration set. The potential to use FT‐IR, as a tool for pattern recognition and clustering with respect to EPS structures produced by micro organisms isolated from a paper mill environment is discussed.

To determine the overall efficiency of processes designed to convert lignocellulosic polysaccharides to ethanol, it is first necessary to determine the composition of the lignocellulosic substrates. Three standard methods routinely referenced in the literature for this purpose are monoethanolamine, trifluoroacetic acid and concentrated sulphuric acid-based methods. However, in the course of our studies, the suitability of these standard methods for analysis of wastepaper and wheat straw came into question. This paper details our investigations in this area, together with recommendations for appropriate modifications to one of the standard methods for reproducible and representative lignocellulosic compositional analysis of waste paper and cereal straw.

The slime-forming bacterium Methylobacterium sp. was isolated from a Finnish paper machine and its exopolysaccharide (EPS) was produced on laboratory scale. Sugar compositional analysis revealed a 100% galactan (EPS). However, FT-IR showed a very strong peak at 1611 cm−1 showing the presence of pyruvate. Analysis of the pyruvate content revealed that, based on the sugar composition, the EPS consists of a trisaccharide repeating unit consisting of d-galactopyranose and [4,6-O-(1-carboxyethylidene)]-d-galactopyranose with a molar ratio of 1:2, respectively. Both linkage analysis and 2D homo- and heteronuclear 1H and 13C NMR spectroscopy revealed the following repeating unit: →3)-[4,6-O-(1-carboxyethylidene)]-α-d-Galp-(1→3)[4,6-O-(1-carboxyethylidene)]-α-d-Galp-(1→3)-α-d-Galp-(1→. By enrichment cultures from various ground and compost heap samples a polysaccharide-degrading culture was obtained that produced an endo acting enzyme able to degrade the EPS described. The enzyme hydrolysed the EPS to a large extent, releasing oligomers that mainly consisted out of two repeating units.

Environmental issues such as the depletion of non-renewable energy resources and pollution are topical. The extent of solid waste production is of global concern and development of its bioenergy potential can combine issues such as pollution control and bioproduct development, simultaneously. Various wastepaper materials, a major component of solid waste, were treated with the cellulase enzyme from Trichoderma viride, thus bioconverting their cellulose component into fermentable sugars. All wastepaper materials exhibited different susceptibilities towards the cellulase as well as the production of non-similar sugar releasing patterns when increasing amounts of paper were treated with a fixed enzyme concentration. The hydrolysis of wastepaper with changing enzyme concentrations and incubation periods also resulted in dissimilar sugar-producing tendencies. A general decline in hydrolytic efficiency was observed when increasing sugar concentrations were produced during biodegradation of all wastepaper materials.

Biofilms of paper mill bacteria were cultivated in paper mill white water-simulating conditions on glass slides or stainless steel coupons in a laboratory culture system. The sugar content and composition of the biofilms were analysed and compared with the sugar composition of paper mill slimes. Acid methanolysis followed by gas chromatography revealed that Burkholderia was the major biofilm producer in pure culture, producing up to 50 microg of biofilm sugar cm(-2) in 5 days in rich medium and 10 microg in paper mill simulating medium. A mixture of simulated paper mill water with a culture medium yielded more biofilm (100 microg cm(-2)) than either of the media alone, so the biofilm accumulation was not proportional to the available substrate. More biofilm accumulated on stainless steel coupons than on glass slides, and the steel-coupon biofilms contained slightly more uronic acids. The biofilm sugars contained mainly galactose, glucose, mannose, and rhamnose. In paper mill medium, the Burkholderia biofilm contained more galactose and glucose, and less rhamnose, than in rich laboratory medium. The sugar composition of paper mill slimes was quite similar to those of steel-cultured Burkholderia cepacia biofilms. This suggests that Burkholderia cepacia is responsible for much of the slime in the paper mill.

Lime (Ca[OH]2) and oxygen (O2) were used to enhance the enzymatic digestibility of two kinds of high-lignin biomass: poplar wood and newspaper. The recommended pretreatment conditions for poplar wood are 150 degrees C, 6 h, 0.1 g of Ca(OH)2/g of dry biomass, 9 mL of water/g of dry biomass, 14.0 bar absolute oxygen, and a particle size of -10 mesh. Under these conditions, the 3-d reducing sugar yield of poplar wood using a cellulase loading of 5 filter paper units (FPU)/g of raw dry biomass increased from 62 to 565 mg of eq. glucose/g of raw dry biomass, and the 3-d total sugar (glucose + xylose) conversion increased from 6 to 77% of raw total sugars. At high cellulase loadings (e.g., 75 FPU/g of raw dry biomass), the 3-d total sugar conversion reached 97%. In a trial run with newspaper, using conditions of 140 degrees C, 3 h, 0.3 g of Ca(OH)2/g of dry biomass, 16 mL of water/g of dry biomass, and 7.1 bar absolute oxygen, the 3-d reducing sugar yield using a cellulase loading of 5 FPU/g of raw dry biomass increased from 240 to 565 mg of eq. glucose/g of raw dry biomass. A material balance study on poplar wood shows that oxidative lime pretreatment solubilized 38% of total biomass, including 78% of lignin and 49% of xylan; no glucan was removed. Ash increased because calcium was incorporated into biomass during the pretreatment. After oxidative lime pretreatment, about 21% of added lime could be recovered by CO2 carbonation.

Packaging samples for many kinds of foodstuffs were received from manufacturers together with basic information about the materials used in their production. Half of the 29 samples studied contained phthalates in amounts exceeding 5 mg/kg. Two types of paper bag intended for sugar and exceptionally high phthalate contents although they were flexo printed. The maximum contents of di-isobutylphthalate (DIBP) and dibutylphthalate (DBP) were 450 and 200 mg/kg, respectively. The phthalates found originated from adhesives used in the joints of the packaging. In other packagings manufactured at the same time, DIBP concentrations varied from 92 to 193 mg/kg. Phthalates were also determined in sugar before and after packaging. Migration of phthalates ranged from 57 to 74% of the original content in the packaging after 4 months storage. Packed sugar contained DIBP 2.2-2.6 mg/kg and DBP 0.5-1 mg/kg. The sugar packagings were also tested using Tenax as a food stimulant. The results indicated that 69-91% of the original content of the phthalates migrated into Tenex after 10 days at 40 degrees C. The major drawback with migration testing using Tenax is its high cost; it is not practical to fill the whole 1 kg packaging with Tenax, and smaller samples of packaging must be used instead. However, the distribution of substances in the packaging might be non-uniform. In the sugar packagings studied here, the difference between phthalate concentrations in two samples taken from the same packaging was nearly 100-fold.

A simple technique is described for drying sera on washed, dry sand or ordinary sugar cubes for the sero-diagnosis of leptospirosis. The results are shown to be very similar to those obtained with fluid sera or sera dried on filter paper discs. Sera adsorbed on sand or absorbed in sugar eliminated some of the problems associated with sera dried on paper. This method is suitable for use in the field and is expected to be of value in epizootiological studies where contamination and chemical denaturation of fluid serum samples held without refrigeration is a problem.