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Purification of the coenzyme B12-dependent isobutyryl-CoA mutase (ICM) from Streptomyces cinnamonensis gave a protein of approximately 65 kDa by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, whose gene icmA was cloned using sequences derived from tryptic peptide fragments. The gene encodes a protein of 566 residues (62, 487 Da), with 43-44% sequence identity to the large subunit of methylmalonyl-CoA mutase (MCM) from S. cinnamonensis and Propionibacterium shermanii. Targeted disruption of the icmA gene yielded an S. cinnamonensis mutant devoid of ICM activity. The IcmA protein is approximately 160 residues shorter than the large subunit of the bacterial MCMs, corresponding to a loss of the entire C-terminal coenzyme B12 binding domain. The sequence of the (beta/alpha)8-barrel comprising residues A1-A400 in P. shermanii MCM is highly conserved in IcmA. The protein was produced in Streptomyces lividans and Escherichia coli with an N-terminal His6 tag (His6-IcmA), but after purification His6-IcmA showed no ICM activity. In the presence of coenzyme B12, protein from S. lividans and S. cinnamonensis of approximately 17 kDa by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis could be selectively eluted with His6-IcmA from a Ni2+ affinity column. After purification, this small subunit showed no ICM activity but gave active enzyme when recombined with coenzyme B12 and IcmA or His6-IcmA.

The catabolism of branched chain amino acids, especially valine, appears to play an important role in furnishing building blocks for macrolide antibiotic biosynthesis. To determine for the first time the importance of valine dehydrogenase (vdh) in polyether antibiotic biosynthesis, the vdh gene from Streptomyces cinnamonensis has been cloned and sequenced. The enzyme (M(r)37,718 Da) has been produced in large amounts in an active form in the E. coli cytoplasm using a T7 RNA-polymerase expression system. Upon inactivation of the gene in S. cinnamonensis by a double-crossover mechanism, a hyg::vdh mutant was isolated that was devoid of vdh activity. Upon growth in chemically defined media, as well as a complex medium optimised for monensin production, the mutant and wild-type grew equally well and reached the same levels of monensin production. In both strains a valine transaminase activity could be detected that provides an alternative route for converting valine into 2-oxoisovaleric acid. The results show that vdh is not essential for normal growth of S. cinnamonensis, and its inactivation does not significantly affect normal levels of monensin production in this strain.

In streptomycetes, the conversion of succinyl-coenzyme A (CoA) into methylmalonyl-CoA, catalyzed by methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, most likely represents an important source of building blocks for polyketide antibiotic biosynthesis. In this work, the structural gene for methylmalonyl-CoA mutase from Streptomyces cinnamonensis was cloned by using a heterologous gene probe encoding the mutase from Propionibacterium shermanii. A 5,732-bp fragment was sequenced, within which four open reading frames were identified on one DNA strand. The two largest (mutA and mutB) overlap by 1 nucleotide and encode proteins of 616 and 733 residues showing high amino acid sequence similarities to each other and to methylmalonyl-CoA mutases from P. shermanii and mammalian sources. The transcriptional start of the mutA-mutB message, determined by S1 mapping, coincides with the first nucleotide of the translational start codon. Evidence that these two open reading frames encode a functional mutase in S. cinnamonensis was obtained by subcloning and expression in Streptomyces lividans TK64. The mutA and mutB gene products were detected in Western blots (immunoblots) with mutase-specific antibodies and by direct detection of mutase activity with a newly developed assay method. The methylmalonyl-CoA mutase was unable to catalyze the conversion of isobutyryl-CoA into n-butyryl-CoA, another closely related adenosylcobalamin-dependent rearrangement known to occur in S. cinnamonensis.

Cloned DNA encoding polyketide synthase (PKS) genes from one Streptomyces species was previously shown to serve as a useful hybridisation probe for the isolation of other PKS gene clusters from the same or different species. In this work, the actI and actIII genes, encoding components of the actinorhodin PKS of Streptomyces coelicolor, were used to identify and clone a region of homologous DNA from the monensin-producing organism S. cinnamonensis. A 4799 bp fragment containing the S. cinnamonensis act-homologous DNA was sequenced. Five open reading frames (ORFs 1-5) were identified on one strand of this DNA. The five ORFs show high sequence similarities to ORFs that were previously identified in the granaticin, actinorhodin, tetracenomycin and whiE PKS gene clusters. This allowed the assignment of the following putative functions to these five ORFS: a heterodimeric beta-ketoacyl synthase (ORF1 and ORF2), an acyl carrier protein (ORF3), a beta-ketoacyl reductase (ORF5), and a bifunctional cyclase/dehydrase (ORF4). The ORFs are encoded in the order ORF1-ORF2-ORF3-ORF5-ORF4, and ORFs-1 and -2 show evidence for translational coupling. This act-homologous region therefore appears to encode a PKS gene cluster. A gene disruption experiment using the vector pGM160, and other evidence, suggests that this cluster is not essential for monensin biosynthesis but rather is involved in the biosynthesis of a cryptic aromatic polyketide in S. cinnamonensis. An efficient plasmid transformation system for S. cinnamonensis has been established, using the multicopy plasmids pWOR120 and pWOR125.

The Streptomyces glaucescens genome frequently undergoes gross genomic rearrangement events which result in the deletion of extremely large segments of chromosomal DNA. The structure and origin of the DNA forming the novel junctions arising from five of these deletion events are described. Only one junction proved to be the result of a relatively simple event; the remainder were more complex, with one involving DNA which originated from at least five distinct loci. In three of the investigated cases, DNA sequences present in the junctions appeared to have resulted from the duplication of previously unique sequences, suggesting that duplication of chromosomal segments may be an important factor in genetic instability. The nucleotide sequences surrounding these junctions and their respective wild-type termini were determined.

compounds. Theseinclude numerous excreted hydrolytic enzymes, enzyme inhibitors, immunomodifiers, andover60% ofnaturally occurring antibiotics (5). Thegenome sizeis typically intherangeof5 x 103to7 x 103kilobases (kb) (19), whichissurprisingly large, being 1.5to2times thesize ofthatofEscherichia coli. Ithasa highG+C content of73 to75% (19)andsignificant levels ofbothrepetitive sequences(4to11%)and"foldback" DNA (2%). Thereisone majorgenetic linkage group whichtakestheformofa circular chromosome thatisfrequently present inmultiple copies per hyphalcompartment butispresent onlyas a single copy inthespores(25). Oneparticularly interesting aspect ofStreptomyces spp.is thephenomenon ofgenetic instability, whichmanifests itself asextraordinarily highmutation ratesaffecting certain species-specific traits. Unstable phenotypes areirreversibly lost atspontaneous frequencies ashigh as0.1%ofplated spores, butthese frequencies canbemadetoapproach 100%bythe use ofbothmutagenic (ethidium bromide andUV irradiation) andapparently nonmutagenic (cold storage) treatments (29). Themajority oftheseinstabilities are theresult of extensive chromosomal deletions which, interestingly, are frequently accompanied byintense DNA amplifications that takeplace intheabsence ofanyobvious selection pressure. Thedeletions can extend toinexcessof800kb(7), andthe physically linked amplified arrayscanextend to3,000 kb(20, 21),constituting 18and45%ofthechromosome, respectively. The lastdecadehasseen muchprogresstowards an understanding oftheseevents,reflecting theincreasing importance ofthegenus andthedevelopment ofefficient genetic systems(28) foritsmanipulation andexploitation. In thisminireview, we present an overview oftheinstability phenomenon andtheassociated chromosomal deletion and amplification events, withparticular reference toone ofthe best-characterized systems, S.glaucescens.

Certain chromosomal markers in Streptomyces glaucescens behave unstably, being lost at high frequency as a result of extensive genomic deletion. Additionally, mutant strains possessing such deletions frequently display intense DNA amplification. With the help of a wild-type cosmid library we investigated the structure of the amplified DNA sequences (ADS) and the corresponding wild-type amplifiable units of DNA (AUD). The reiterations were heterogeneous in location, copy number and sequences involved and originated predominantly from a single 100 kb region of the chromosome called the AUD locus. All strains bearing reiterations possessed associated deletions which terminated either close to or at the ADS. The termini of four AUDs were sequenced in order to gain more knowledge about these heterogeneous amplifications. In three of the four cases investigated small, interrupted homologies were found bordering the AUDs. With the help of orthogonal-field-alternation gel electrophoresis (OFAGE) we were able to visualize a tandem reiteration of more than 1,500 kb in length.

Genetic instability in Streptomyces glaucescens characteristically involves the occurrence of gross genomic rearrangements including high-level sequence amplification and extensive deletion. We investigated the relationship of the unstable melC and strS loci and a 100 kb region of the chromosome which frequently gives rise to intense heterogeneous DNA amplification. Standard chromosome walking using a cosmid bank in conjunction with a "reverse-blot" procedure enabled us to construct a contiguous genomic BamHI map of the unstable region exceeding 900 kb. The unstable genes and the amplifiable region (AUD locus) are physically linked within a 600 kb segment of the chromosome. The previously characterized deletions which affect these loci are merely components of much larger deletions ranging from 270 to over 800 kb which are polar in nature, effecting the sequential loss of the strS and melC loci. The more extensive deletions terminate either adjacent to, or in the vicinity of DNA reiterations at the AUD locus. Additionally, a deletion junction fragment and the corresponding deletion ends were cloned and analysed at the sequence level.