Search

Global crude steel production is expected to continue to increase in the coming decades to meet the demands of the growing world population. Currently, the dominant steelmaking technology worldwide is the conventional highly CO2 -intensive blast furnace–basic oxygen furnace production route (also known as the Linz–Donawitz process), which uses iron ore as raw material and coke as a reducing agent. As a result, large quantities of special gases that are rich in carbon monoxide (CO) are by-products of the various stages of the steelmaking process. Given the challenges associated with satellite-based estimates of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions at the scale of emitting installations due to significant background levels, co-emitted CO may serve as a valuable indicator of the carbon footprint of steel plants. We show that regional CO release from steel production sites can be monitored from space using 5 years of measurements (2018–2022) from the TROPOspheric Monitoring Instrument (TROPOMI) on board the Sentinel-5 Precursor satellite, benefiting from its relatively high spatial resolution and daily global coverage. We analyse all German steel plants with blast furnaces and basic oxygen furnaces and obtain associated CO emissions in the range of 50–400 kt yr -1 per site. A comparison with the respective CO2 emissions on the level of emitting installations available from emissions trading data of the European Union Emissions Trading System yields a linear relationship with a sector-specific CO/CO2 emission ratio for the analysed steelworks of 3.24 % [2.73–3.89; 1 σ ], suggesting the feasibility of using CO as a proxy for CO2 emissions from comparable steel production sites. An evaluation at other steel production sites indicates that the derived CO/CO2 emission ratio is also representative of other highly optimised state-of-the-art Linz–Donawitz steelworks outside Germany and that the emission ratio is potentially valuable for estimating sector-specific CO2 emissions from remotely sensed CO emissions, provided that the underlying CO emission estimate is not affected by other sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Global crude steel production is expected to continue to increase in the coming decades to meet the demands of the growing world population. Currently, the dominant steelmaking technology worldwide is the conventional highly CO2-intensive Blast Furnace – Basic Oxygen Furnace production route (also known as the Linz-Donawitz process) using iron ore as raw material and coke as a reducing agent. As a result, large quantities of special gases that are rich in carbon monoxide (CO) are by-products of the various stages of the steelmaking process. Given the challenges associated with satellite-based estimates of carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions at the scale of emitting installations due to significant background levels, co-emitted CO may serve as a valuable indicator of the carbon footprint of steel plants. We show that regional CO release from steel production sites can be monitored from space using 5 years of measurements (2018–2022) from the TROPOspheric monitoring instrument (TROPOMI) on board the Sentinel-5 Precursor satellite benefiting from its relatively high spatial resolution and daily global coverage. We analyse all German steel plants with blast furnaces and basic oxygen furnaces and obtain associated CO emissions in the range of 50–400 kt yr-1 per site. A comparison with the respective CO2 emissions on the level of emitting installations available from emissions trading data of the European Union Emissions Trading System yields a linear relationship with a sector-specific CO/CO2 emission ratio for the analysed steelworks of 3.24 % [2.73–3.89; 1 σ ] suggesting the feasibility of using CO as a proxy for CO2 emissions from comparable steel production sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

As various regions around the world implement carbon taxes, we assert that the competitiveness of steel products in the marketplace will shift according to individual manufacturers' ability to reduce CO2 emissions as measured by cradle-to-gate Life Cycle Analysis (LCA). This study was performed by using LCA and cost estimate research to compare the CO2 emissions and the additional cost applied to the production of various decarbonized materials used in sheet for automotive industry applications using the bending stiffness-based weight reduction factor. The pre-pandemic year 2019 was used as a baseline for cost estimates. This paper discusses the future cost scenarios based on carbon taxes and hydrogen cost. The pathways to decarbonize steel and alternative materials such as aluminum and reinforced polymer composites were evaluated. Normalized global warming potential (nGWP) estimates were calculated assuming inputs from the current USA electricity grid, and a hypothetical renewables-based grid. For a current electricity grid mix in the US (with 61% fossil fuels, 19% nuclear, 20% renewables), the lowest nGWP was found to be secondary aluminum and 100% recycled scrap melting of steel. This is followed by the natural gas Direct Reduced Iron–Electric Arc Furnace (DRI-EAF) route with carbon capture and the Blast Furnace-Basic Oxygen Furnace (BF-BOF) route with carbon capture. From the cost point of view, the current cheapest decarbonized production route is natural gas DRI-EAF with Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS). For a renewable electricity grid (50% solar photovoltaic and 50% wind), the lowest GWP was found to be 100% recycled scrap melting of steel and secondary aluminum. This is followed by the hydrogen-based DRI-EAF route and natural gas DRI-EAF with carbon capture. The results indicate that, when applying technologies available today, decarbonized steel will remain competitive, at least in the context of automotive sheet selection compared to aluminum and composites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among heavy industrial sectors worldwide, the steel industry ranks first in carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Technologies that produce direct reduced iron (DRI) enable the industry to reduce emissions or even approach net‐zero CO2 emissions for steel production. Herein, comprehensive cradle‐to‐gate (CTG) life cycle analysis (LCA) and techno‐economic analysis (TEA) are used to evaluate the CO2 emissions of three DRI technologies. Compared to the baseline of blast furnace and basic oxygen furnace (BF–BOF) technology for steel making, using natural gas (NG) to produce DRI has the potential to reduce CTG CO2 emissions by 33%. When 83% or 100% renewable H2 is used for DRI production, DRI technologies can potentially reduce CO2 emissions by 57% and 67%, respectively, compared to baseline BF–BOF technology. However, the renewable H2 application for DRI increases the levelized cost of steel (LCOS). When renewable natural gas (RNG) and clean electricity are used for steel production, the CTG CO2 emissions of all the DRI technologies can potentially be reduced by more than 90% compared to the baseline BF–BOF technology, although the LCOS depends largely on the cost of RNG and clean electricity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence of V2O5 on the phosphorus partition between liquid crude steel and heterogenous basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slag with CaO/SiO2 = 4.2 was investigated at a temperature of 1600 °C in a middle frequency induction furnace. Thereby the phosphorus transfer from "steel to slag" as well as from "slag to steel" was studied over a holding time of 60 minutes. The measured results were shown as phosphorus partition and phosphorus capacity and compared with the experimental values from the literature. It was found that V2O5 in highly basic BOF slags decreases phosphorus partition and phosphorus capacity. In addition, the resulting slags were investigated using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With the continuous optimization of the steel production process and the increasing emergence of smelting methods, it has become difficult to monitor and control the production process using the traditional steel management model. The regulation of steel smelting processes by means of machine learning has become a hot research topic in recent years. In this study, through the data mining and correlation analysis of the main equipment and processes involved in steel transfer, a network algorithm was optimized to solve the problems of standard back propagation (BP) networks, and a steel temperature forecasting model based on improved back propagation (BP) neural networks was established for basic oxygen furnace (BOF) steelmaking, ladle furnace (LF) refining, and Ruhrstahl–Heraeus (RH) refining. The main factors influencing steel temperature were selected through theoretical analysis and heat balance principles; the production data were analyzed; and the neural network was trained and tested using large amounts of field data to predict the end-point steel temperature of basic oxygen furnace (BOF) steelmaking, ladle furnace (LF) refining, and Ruhrstahl–Heraeus (RH) refining. The prediction model was applied to predict the degree of influence of different operating parameters on steel temperature. A comparison of the prediction results with the production data shows that the prediction system has good prediction accuracy, with a hit rate of over 90% for steel temperature deviations within 20 °C. Compared with the traditional steel temperature management model, the prediction system in this paper has higher management efficiency and a faster response time and is more practical and generalizable in the thermal management of steel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Basic oxygen furnace slag is considered a potential material for the replacement of natural aggregate in Portland cement concrete due to its similar physical characteristics. Therefore, in the present work, the slag was analyzed by Nitrogen sorption porosimetry, elemental analysis, mineralogical analysis, and volume stability. On the other hand, concrete mixtures were manufactured with basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slag aggregates and characterized mechanically and morphologically. The results showed superior compressive strength due to interfacial improvements in the slag aggregate. Statistically, there was no differentiation between the reference concrete and the slag concrete mixtures for tensile strength. Additionally, due to the porosity and low stiffness presented by the slag, the concrete elastic modulus showed a slight decrease. The replacement of sand with BOF slag as fine aggregate in Portland cement concrete presents itself as a sustainable alternative for the elimination and valorization of this environmental liability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Open-graded asphalt friction course (OGAFC) is an asphalt course constructed over a dense-graded and impermeable surface to allow quick drainage of surface water runoff and enable reduction of hydroplaning and splash and spray. OGAFC mixtures demand high-quality aggregates to perform the intended functions while transferring traffic loads to the underlying layer. Steel slag is a byproduct generated during steel production, and large quantities are unutilized in steel-producing countries, including India. This study evaluated the mechanical performance properties of OGAFC mixtures using basic oxygen furnace (BOF) steel slag as replacement for coarse aggregates at percentages of 0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%. OGAFC mixtures with two types of modified asphalt binders and five percentage replacements of coarse natural aggregates with BOF steel slag were fabricated. The mechanical performance of the OGAFC mixtures was evaluated in terms of rutting resistance (dynamic creep test and Hamburg wheel tracking device test), cracking potential (indirect tensile strength, cracking tolerance index, and semicircular bending test), fatigue life (indirect tensile fatigue test), and modulus properties (indirect tensile stiffness modulus and resilient modulus). The test results indicated that the use of BOF steel slag not only improved the performance of OGAFC mixtures in terms of rutting resistance, cracking potential, and modulus properties, but also increased the fatigue life of the OGAFC mixes. OGAFC mixes up to 100% BOF steel slag content exhibited superior performance compared with the mixtures with natural aggregates. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this study, the feasibility of using steel fibers and steel shavings in roller-compacted concrete containing coarse basic oxygen furnace slag aggregate was investigated in order to improve its mechanical properties and to produce an electrically conductive and environment-friendly concrete. For this purpose, various samples containing 0.4, 0.7, and 1% of steel fiber and 3, 5, and 7% of steel shaving were fabricated. The compressive strength, indirect tensile strength, electrical resistance, and specific density tests were conducted on the samples. The results demonstrated the positive effect of steel fiber and the destructive effect of steel shaving on the compressive and tensile strengths of RCC containing BOFS. The results of the electrical resistance test showed a more positive effect of steel shaving than steel fiber in the conductivity of RCC samples. Regarding the specific gravity results, the natural aggregate replacement with BOFS as well as steel fiber and steel shaving resulted in an increase in the specific gravity of the mixtures. Utilizing the both steel fiber and steel shaving can compensate the unfavorable properties on the RCC containing BOFS. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Steel slag (SS) is a secondary material from steelmaking production with little commercial value. Its volumetric expansion and low reactivity limit the use of SS in Portland cement (PC)-based materials. This study investigated the potential use of basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slag as a single precursor in alkali-activated matrices (AAMs). Six AAM pastes were assessed by changing the silica modulus (0.75, 1.50 and 2.22) and the sodium concentration (4% or 6% Na2O—wt. SS). The early hydration was assessed using isothermal calorimetry (IC), followed by the assessment of the mechanical performance (compressive strength), apparent porosity, and structure and microstructure characterization (X-ray diffraction, thermogravimetric analysis and scanning electron microscopy). The results indicated that although the BOF slag may be considered a low-reactivity material, the alkaline environment effectively dissolved important crystalline phases to produce hydrates (reaction products). An optimized combination of activator sources was achieved with 4% Na2O and a silica modulus of 1.50–2.22, with a compressive strength up to 20 MPa, a significant amount of reaction products (C-S-H/C-A-S-H gels), and low initial and cumulative heat release. Those properties will help to promote SS recycling use in future engineering projects that do not require high-strength materials. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Control of carryover slag is essential during transfer of liquid steel from basic oxygen furnace to ladle to maintain preferred steel cleanliness. Carryover slag is oxidising in nature and its higher amount will lead to higher refractory wear rate, low alloy recovery and increased secondary steelmaking treatment time. Measuring the amount of carryover slag is essential for evaluating current tapping practices and implementing necessary precautions when needed. In the present study, a kinetic process model has been developed using FactSage macro processing code. Steel lollipop and slag samples were collected between tapping start and onset of ladle refining process for a medium carbon aluminium killed grade. Liquid steel-slag interaction, flux addition to slag, various metallic additions to steel and refractory dissolution to slag were taken into account in the model. Multiple simulations were performed with varying amounts of carryover slag and composition of steel and slag of initial samples from the ladle furnace were equated with the predicted values from FactSage kinetic model to determine the carryover slag amount. Apart from predicting the carryover slag amount, this model can be useful to understand the effect of tapping parameters on variations in liquid steel and slag chemistry during tapping. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The adhesion of scale to the steel substrate is an important parameter in the charge heating process before plastic processing. A low value of adhesion adversely affects the operation of heating furnaces, while too high value causes the scale to roll into a steel product and deteriorate its purity and quality. The paper presents the methodology of adhesion determination and the results obtained on the basis of the presented methodology. The influence of heating technology on adhesion for constant furnace efficiency and different values of excess air ratio is discussed. The furnace efficiency and the excess air ratio are the basic parameters of the process. It is extremely important in the context of the challenges of optimizing production processes, which in turn is an important element of the circular economy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Friction properties of open graded asphalt friction course (OGAFC) mixtures play an essential role in ensuring traffic safety, especially under wet weather conditions. This study evaluated the friction characteristics of basic oxygen furnace (BOF) and electric-arc furnace (EAF) steel slag aggregate incorporated OGAFC mixes. Nine sets of OGAFC mixes were fabricated using five percentage replacements (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) of the coarse natural aggregate fraction by BOF and EAF steel slags. The effect of modified binder type (polymer and crumb-rubber modified) on the frictional characteristics of OGAFC mixes was also examined. The principal friction test devices used were the British pendulum tester and dynamic friction tester. Multiple friction performance aspects were studied: (1) effect of surface condition (dry, wet, and ponding) on the measured friction coefficient; (2) separate evaluation of adhesion and hysteresis friction components; (3) variation of friction coefficient with varying slip speeds, and (4) friction performance later in the OGAFC service life using artificially polished aggregates, and comparison of the performance with unpolished aggregates. Results revealed that the use of steel slags in OGAFC mixes considerably enhanced the frictional characteristics and that the skid resistance of OGAFC-BOF mixes was better than that of OGAFC-EAF mixes. Frictional resistance of the mixes was found to increase with an increase in steel slag content. OGAFC mixes comprising polished steel slag aggregates also showed promising results with the increment in steel slag content. The findings also indicated that OGAFC-CRMB mixes perform better than OGAFC-PMB mixes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The effect of slag composition on the cleanliness of Al-Ti deoxidized interstitial-free steel produced via basic oxygen furnace (BOF)-ladle furnace (LF)-Ruhrstahl-Heraeus (RH)-continuous casting (CC) process was investigated by the systematic samplings and analyses for four heats in a steel plant in China. Oxygen/nitrogen analyzer, automatic scanning electron microscope, field-emission scanning electron microscope, and energy spectroscopy analysis were used to analyze the variations of number, size, type, and morphology of inclusions in molten steel from RH to tundish, and X-ray fluorescence was used to analyze the slag composition. The relationship between slag composition and inclusion characteristics in molten steel was investigated. The effect of slag composition on the oxygen mass transfer from the slag–metal interface to liquid steel was also studied through a theoretical calculation. The results showed that the cleanliness of molten steel was greatly affected by the slag composition. The deterioration of steel cleanliness was mainly arisen from a serious reoxidation of molten steel by oxidizing components like (T.Fe + MnO) in top slag during RH refining process. A weak ability to absorb inclusions of top slag with high CaO/Al2O3 and CaO/SiO2 mass ratios was confirmed from the inclusions analyses. The size and number of Al2O3 inclusion clusters were larger, and Ti content in Al2O3-TiO x inclusions was higher from RH to tundish in the case of serious reoxidation. The reduction of FeO content and keeping the CaO/Al2O3 and CaO/SiO2 ratios at about 1.6 and 4–7, respectively, in top slag during RH refining process was beneficial to minimize the reoxidation of Al and Ti and increase the inclusion absorption ability of top slag. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study investigated the effectiveness of tartaric acid treatment in inhibiting the expansive behaviour of basic oxygen furnace (BOF) steel slag, aiming to optimize its utilization as a sustainable replacement for natural coarse aggregate in concrete. Tartaric acid-treated steel slag (TTSS) and non-tartaric acid-treated steel slag (NTSS) were comprehensively characterized for particle size and shape properties, physical and mechanical behaviour, and durability aspects including MgO stability factor and iron unsoundness. Chemical, morphological, mineralogical, and microstructural analyses were conducted using XRF, SEM-EDS, XRD, FT-IR, and optical microscopy, elucidating the impact of tartaric acid treatment. Compressive strength tests were then performed with TTSS incorporation levels of 30 %, 40 %, 50 %, and 0 % as reference batch (RB). As a result, TTSS showed 7.44 % and 10.92 % better physical and mechanical properties than NTSS respectively. Whereas on durability aspects, TTSS depicts 40 % better results on iron unsoundness and 36.43 % higher water absorption over NTSS. Furthermore, a maximum compressive strength of 44 MPa was achieved with a significant improvement of 15.80 % from RB. Additionally, TTSS aggregate-based cement concrete exhibited a denser microstructure and improved performance. This work highlights the potential of BOF steel slag as an aggregate resource, contributing to a circular economy and mitigating the environmental burdens associated with traditional aggregate production. [Display omitted] • Treated steel slag aggregate significantly improves the volumetric stability. • Steel slag tartaric treatment showed better or comparable key aggregate properties. • Achieved 50 % replacement of conventional aggregate with the treated aggregate. • Sustainable and eco-friendly approach towards steel slag solid waste management. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The existence of the dissolved aluminum and other impurity elements in alloys would inevitably lead to the formation of the Al2O3 component of inclusions in Si–Mn killed steels. Herein, the effect of dissolved oxygen at the endpoint of basic oxygen furnace (BOF) on the control of inclusions in a Si–Mn killed steel is investigated. With the increase in the dissolved oxygen at the BOF endpoint, the (FeO + MnO) content in the refining slag increases and the dissolved aluminum in the steel decreases as a whole. Meanwhile, the proper increase in the dissolved oxygen hardly deteriorated the cleanliness of the steel. As the equilibrium dissolved oxygen at the BOF endpoint increased from 148 to 402 ppm, the Al2O3 content of inclusions could be lowered to <4 wt%. Both industrial trials and the thermodynamic consideration indicate that increasing the dissolved oxygen at the endpoint of BOF can be an efficient approach to achieve the ultralow Al2O3 content of inclusions in the Si–Mn killed steel due to the oxidation of the dissolved aluminum by the oxygen both in the molten steel and in the refining slag. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The open graded asphalt friction course (OGAFC) is a hot mix asphalt wearing course designed and constructed to mainly achieve the benefits of quick surface water drainage, high skid resistance, and low tire-pavement noise. OGAFC thus offers advantages of reduced hydroplaning, reduced splash and spray, reduced noise, and enhanced skid resistance and visibility (especially in wet weather). These mixes demand a uniform/open aggregate gradation for high permeability; establishment of proper stone-on-stone contact for good structural stability; and higher relatively stiff binder content for adequate resistance to moisture damage and binder draindown. Due to the lack of fines and higher binder content in OGAFC mixes, the asphalt binder tends to move down vertically under the influence of gravity when exposed to high temperatures during production (production-stage draindown) and over time at high pavement service temperatures (long-term draindown). This study evaluates long-term binder draindown of OGAFC mixes with both natural aggregates and basic oxygen furnace (BOF) steel slag, a waste/by-product of steel making, as a replacement for natural aggregates. OGAFC mixes with five replacement percentages (0%, 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100%) of BOF steel slag and two types of modified binders (polymer and modified crumb rubber) were subjected to different long-term binder draindown–conditioning protocols and then evaluated through determination of permeability characteristics, moisture susceptibility, raveling potential, and permanent deformation. The results revealed that aging in terms of temperature and duration has a significant effect on binder draindown. OGAFC mixes with higher BOF steel slag content showed better raveling, rutting, and moisture performance compared with a control mix after being subjected to long-term draindown. The inclusion of BOF steel slag up to 100% in OGAFC mixes produced encouraging results, with overall improvement in performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Steel slag is being used worldwide for a variety of applications, among which is underwater dyke reinforcement. In the present study the leaching and bioaccumulation of 18 inorganic compounds from basic oxygen furnace (BOF) steel slag were monitored in marine experimental ecosystems (mesocosms) for 12 wk. Triplicate mesocosms were installed at 2 refreshment rates, one reflecting the situation in the Oosterschelde estuary where BOF steel slag was applied and the other at a 35 times lower rate. Vanadium in both water and biota turned out to be the best tracer for the presence of BOF steel slag in the mesocosms. The mesocosm data helped to interpret the results of a 4‐yr field sampling program in the Oosterschelde estuary where no elevated levels of vanadium in water or biota were found near locations where steel slag was applied. Also, no ecological impact could be established in the field, which was in line with the observations in the mesocosms. The present study shows the added value of a tailor‐made mesocosm study for realistic risk assessment and provides support for applying this tool as a basis for designing efficient field monitoring programs. Environ Toxicol Chem 2021;40:2499–2509. © 2021 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The phosphorus partition between the unkilled liquid crude steel and the high basicity (CaO/SiO2 = 4.2), basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slags with varying compositions of Al2O3, TiO2, and MnO is studied at temperatures 1600 and 1650 °C. The tests are conducted in both "slag‐to‐metal" and "metal‐to‐slag" directions and for durations of 30 and 60 min. The measured results are compared with the values reported in literature and found to be in good agreement with some of them. It is found in the investigation of high‐basicity BOF slags, that Al2O3, MnO, and TiO2 lower the phosphorus partition. The phosphorus partition increases with increasing optical basicity. The phosphorus partition shows a maximum when the FeO content is in range of 25–30 mass%. The MgO content slightly increases the phosphorus partition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The steel manufacturing process involves not only the substance flow of iron from iron‐bearing materials to steel products but also the circulation and movement of many additional elements. In this study, the flow and circulation of zinc during coking, sintering, blast furnace (BF) ironmaking, basic oxygen furnace (BOF) steelmaking, and continuous casting processes, which has been neglected, was analyzed in an integrated iron and steel mill throughout 2013. The results indicated that approximately 2,317 tonnes (t) of zinc from steelmaking raw materials were input into the studied steel mill in 2013, of which 58.8% originated from iron ore fines, 22.3% from pellets, and 8.8% from lumps. Although 1,212 t of zinc was discharged along with coking chemical products and steel slag after magnetic separation or iron‐bearing dust and sludge, 1,105 t of zinc remained within the circulation. According to this research, we inferred that approximately 142 kilotonnes of zinc, 2.7% of China's zinc production in 2013, and approximately 1.5 million tonnes in total from 2000 to 2017 were concentrated in BF and BOF dust or sludge. This large amount of zinc has been ignored by Chinese steelmakers and zinc producers, although it should be used as a resource for zinc recycling. Thus, integrated steel mills should develop pertinent treatments targeting these fractions to prevent and handle the hazards from the circulation and concentration of zinc inside their premises. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Revealing the life-cycle CO 2 emissions of steel products is of great significance for mitigating CO 2 emissions. However, previous studies did not conduct comparative analysis for steel products produced by different technological pathways, resulting in considerable confusion in the setting of carbon reduction pathways. By using the material flow analysis method, this study revealed the life-cycle CO 2 emissions associated with various technological pathways. The results shows that life-cycle CO 2 emissions per metric ton of steel are: 3620.78 kg for shaft furnace (SF)-electric furnace (EF) routes, 2598.54 kg for blast furnace (BF)- basic oxygen furnace (BOF), 1868.16 kg for Scrap & Molten Iron-EF and 1330.22 kg for scrap-EF. The energy structure (e.g. coal blending mode, power generation mode) material structure (e.g. iron ore matching mode, matching mode of scrap and molten iron), and transportation mode have a significant impact on CO 2 emissions. Undoubtedly, low-carbon or zero-carbon electricity is more effective in reducing CO 2 emissions. [Display omitted] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article considers the experience of optimizing the slag adjustment mode in the Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) and reducing the proportion of oxide non-metallic impurities in steel. The article presents the results of a research on the separation of slag from metal during the starting period of carbon semi-product tapping, on the elimination of an emergency situation when the hole is shut up at any degree of slag viscosity, the use of the device at any tap hole diameter after the heat, the simplicity of the design. The use of the device makes it possible to increase the durability of the taphole lining, reduce repair costs, and improve the quality of steel by reducing non-metallic impurities. The innovative devices proposed by the author can be useful for metallurgical enterprises. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• There is a strong discernable role of mineralogy and morphology on leaching. • Proton-metal exchange reaction explains divalent metal extraction efficiency. • Iron leaching inhibitors promote selective calcium leaching in acidic media. • Precipitation of silica on the slag surface was not observed; gelation is likely. Steel slags are generally alkaline with a high calcium content and are viewed as a potential feedstock for carbon dioxide sequestration and utilization, mostly through aqueous mineral carbonation routes. For recovery of multiple metals such as Ca, Fe, Mg, and Si, and generation of value-added products by dissolution and precipitation reactions in aqueous media, enhancing the metal selectivity and extraction efficiency are important. However, there is limited understanding of independent parameters that influence these important characteristics. In this work, a systematic attempt was made to correlate these key dissolution characteristics of basic oxygen furnace slag in acidic media with its mineralogical and physical characteristics, the changes in aqueous chemistry, and the role of potential secondary precipitates. The findings from this study substantiate that steel slag is a potential feedstock because of the calcium being mainly present as orthosilicates, which were found to leach congruently without forming a leached layer that might hinder calcium extraction. The leaching of Fe(II) from the slag is the main source of impurity and its slow oxidation-precipitation leads to a pH plateau at the end of the dissolution step. Oxidation-precipitation of Fe(II) is controlled by hydroxyl concentration in the aqueous solution, which necessitates a pH-swing step by addition of a base after dissolution. Use of surface complexing agents, such as sodium molybdate, can significantly reduce iron impurity in the leachate and obtain an iron-rich slag residue for recycle to iron and steel industry. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The resource utilization of steel slag has attracted wide attention. In the present work, the pore structure of cement paste with and without ground basic oxygen furnace slag (BOFS) up to 180 days was investigated by mercury intrusion porosimetry. Permeability was evaluated from the tested pore structure. Results indicate that the porosity, critical pore radius, pore-throat radius, and permeability are increased with the BOFS content and levels off after 28 days. Lower gel porosity and higher coarse capillary porosity were observed in BOFS-blended composites. The calculated permeability (around 0.30–7.49 × 10−19 m2) based on the pore structure agrees well with the range of reported experimental measurements. Well-correlated linear and power-law relationship was noticed between permeability and porosity and characteristic pore radius, respectively. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Except for special grades of steel where it is used as an alloying element, phosphorus is regarded as an impurity that must be removed. Considering the conventional integrated iron and steelmaking, there are primarily two processes for phosphorus removal. The first is a hot metal dephosphorization (DeP) process that is applied to a blast furnace for hot metal before the steelmaking process. The second is the basic oxygen furnace steelmaking (BOS), a unique method primarily used for steelmaking, with the exception of stainless steels. Hot metal phosphorus content has a direct impact on BOS. An increase of phosphorus in hot metal is mainly related to the use of high P2O5 containing iron ores. In the current literature review, new trends of phosphorus removal in converter steelmaking are outlined. The double-slag practice was reported to be successful when hot metal P content was larger than 0.100%. It was indicated that the tapping temperature was critical for the production of low-phosphorus grades for which maximum allowable P content was 0.007% and that high tapping temperatures should be avoided. The tap-to-tap time for the double-slag process was slightly longer than the conventional converter steelmaking. It was further reported that the double-slag practice would be more economical than an establishment of a separate hot metal dephosphorization unit, if low-phosphorus grades did not have a significant share in the product mix of a steelmaking company. Endpoint phosphorus prediction was one of the important recent trends of converter steelmaking. A mixed injection of CO2-O2 to a basic oxygen furnace was applied to enhance dephosphorization, and promising results were reported. Unfortunately, a successful process for recycling of BOS dephosphorization slag has not been reported yet. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Graphical abstract Highlights • Steel slag-derived catalysts can effectively activate SPS for the degradation of PP. • XPS results showed that Fe2+–Fe3+ cycle is responsible for the radical generation. • The removal of PP is a result of its oxidation in presence of HO and SO 4 − radicals. • Steel-slag derived catalysts showed great stability, iron leaching being negligible. • The degradation of PP may occur due to monohydroxylation onto the phenolic ring. Abstract Different iron-containing materials (named as S1–S5) obtained through an oxidative digestion in acid media of basic oxygen furnace (BOF) slag were studied for the activation of sodium persulfate (SPS) to generate active radicals for the oxidation of propylparaben (PP), a model endocrine disruptor, in water. It was found that the materials with magnetite in its composition (S1, S2 and S3) effectively catalyze SPS for the removal of PP, and the reaction followed a pseudo-first-order kinetic pattern (r2 > 0.96). Within 90 min, a removal of approximately 90% of 0.4 mg/L of PP was accomplished by 1 g/L of SPS in presence of 50 mg/L of S1 catalyst with negligible iron leaching. Besides, the oxidation of PP was favored by higher dosages of S1 catalyst and SPS oxidant, lower initial PP concentration and neutral or alkaline pH. The generation of sulfate and hydroxyl radical was indirectly validated from the scavenging tests, using tert-butanol and methanol as scavenging agents. Based on the XPS analysis, it can be pointed out that the radical generation was due to the presence of Fe2+–Fe3+ on the surface of the catalysts. A degradation pathway based on the transformation products (TPs) resulting from PP degradation was also proposed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, a novel prediction method for low carbon steel is proposed based on an improved twin support vector regression algorithm. 300 qualified samples are collected by the sublance measurements from the real plant. The simulation results show that the prediction models can achieve a hit rate of 96% for carbon content within the error bound of 0,005% and 94% for temperature within the error bound of 15 °C. The double hit rate reaches to 90%. It indicates that the proposed method can provide a significant reference for real BOF applications, and also it can be extended to the prediction of other metallurgical industries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

With increasing interest in utilizing metallurgical slags for mineral carbonation, there is a need to find applications for carbonated slags. The scope of this study is to explore the utilization potential of carbonated steel furnace slags (SFS) as supplementary cementitious materials (SCM) to produce low-CO 2 cement-based materials. Two different types of SFS are studied with comparable amounts of major oxides but significantly different mineral phase compositions. In the first phase of the study, several parameters that affect the CO 2 uptake during mineral carbonation are considered (temperature, CO 2 pressure, particle size, and duration) for the two slags namely, basic oxygen furnace slag (BOFS) and desulfurized slag (DeSS). Among the two slags, the DeSS exhibited significantly higher degrees of carbonation than BOFS, and the higher carbonation of DeSS is attributed to the presence of Ca as Ca(OH) 2 rather than Ca–Si in BOFS. For both the slags, increase in temperature and CO 2 pressure generally led to increase in the degree of carbonation. In the second phase of the study, 30 wt% of white Portland cement (WPC) was replaced by carbonated slags (used as SCM) in the cement mixture. The cement mixture with the BOFS carbonated at 60 °C and 1 bar CO 2 pressure, as SCM, exhibited compressive strength comparable with that of WPC. Higher degrees and rates of carbonation under different conditions appears to have reduced their reactivities as SCM. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

It is important to understand the physical interaction between top-blown oxygen jet and liquid bath in basic oxygen furnaces (BOF). In the present study, cold model experiments were carried out to investigate the cavity depth and diameter. Images of the cavities were captured by high speed video camera to study cavity performances. The experimental results show that the depth of bath has little influence on the shape of the cavity and the critical jet flow. The cavity depth and diameter exhibit linear growth by raising the jet flow rate with a fixed jet height. At the same gas flow rate, the cavity diameter has little relation with the nozzle diameter, but the cavity depth becomes deeper with the decrease of the nozzle diameter. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The steel slag powders were produced using a low-energy grinding program. • The proposed powders acted as fillers and/or SCMs in the cement matrix. • The powders' physical properties strongly influenced their performance as SCMs. • The low-energy steel slag powders can increase the eco-efficiency of the matrix. This study evaluated low-energy basic oxygen furnace slag (BOFS) powders as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs). The powders were produced from residual BOFS fines generated in different stages of a steel slag aggregates processing plant. The results indicated that the performances of the proposed mortars were more influenced by the BOFS powders' physical properties than their chemical and mineralogical compositions. The BOFS powders acted as fillers and/or SCMs, increasing the eco-efficiency of the cement-based composites regarding their mechanichal performances. This study demonstrates the feasibility of using waste from steel slag aggregates processing plants as a low-energy alternative to replacing conventional SCMs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• The original crude granular BOFS was successfully utilized to prepare multi-phased clinker. • The multi-phased clinker had a higher content of ferrite phase around 18.07–28.09%. • The grindability and soundness of multi-phased clinker were comparable to the ordinary Portland clinker. • The sintering mechanism of the multi-phased clinker were clarified. Multi-phased sintering technology is an innovative process that directly utilize granular steel slag to calcinate cement clinker. In this study, we synthesized a type of multi-phased clinker with high fractions of original crude granular steel slag and investigated its sintering mechanism and properties. It is found that the diffusion of the molten liquid phase of granular steel slag to the surrounding area influenced the crystallization and growth of the clinker mineral, consequently, a gradient distribution high-ferrite multi-phased clinker was formed. Steel slag changed the clinker mineralogical composition and resulted in the ferrite phase reaching 18.07–28.09%. Laboratory tests showed that the multi-phased clinker with high content of steel slag was technically viable and still obtained exceptional properties. The grindability and soundness of multi-phased clinker were comparable to the ordinary Portland clinker, and the burnability was considerably higher than conventional raw meal. All of which suggested that this process was robust and provided more comprehensive theoretical basis for the industrial application. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The primary objective of this article was to investigate the feasibility of steel slag as fillers, particularly the fillers milled from raw steel slag with different particle size, also the steel slag fillers’ effects on rheological properties of asphalt mastics. Four types of fillers were analyzed, including limestone filler (LF) and three steel slag fillers obtained by milling different raw Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF) steel slags whose original particle sizes were 0–9.5 mm (ASSF, type A Steel Slag Filler), 9.5–13.2 mm (BSSF, type B Steel Slag Filler) and 13.2–26.5 mm (CSSF, type C Steel Slag Filler) separately. Surface characteristics, chemical compositions, phase distributions, thermal properties of fillers were first studied. By applying Bending Beam Rheometer (BBR) at lower temperature and Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) at higher temperature, the rheological properties of asphalt mastics were also investigated. Results show that along with the increase of raw steel slag’s particle size, the Fe content in steel slag filler presented a growing trend obviously. Besides that, compared with LF, steel slag fillers have different surface characteristics, chemical compositions, phase distributions and thermal properties. Furthermore, all steel slag fillers presented outstanding rheological properties, which indicated that they can be used as potential materials to replace LF. Moreover, ASSF corresponding mastic owned the best high-temperature rheological properties while BSSF corresponding mastic revealed the most balanced low-temperature rheological properties. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Given the urgent need for transitions towards global net zero emissions, decarbonisation of the iron and steel industry is critical. Deep decarbonising this sector requires a breakaway from current blast furnace-basic oxygen furnace (BF-BOF) technologies that largely depend on fossil resources. Biosyngas is considered to be a promising alternative to fossil energy and reductants used in existing ironmaking due to its renewability, technological maturity and compatibility for use in existing furnaces. The present work assesses the environmental impacts of biosyngas-based direct reduced iron production followed by electric arc furnace (DRI-EAF) routes for crude steel production. Further, the proposed routes are compared with the other steelmaking routes, including BF-BOF, natural gas (NG)-based and hydrogen-based direct reduction routes by performing life cycle assessment (LCA). The results indicate that the global warming potential (GWP) value for the biosyngas-based DRI-EAF system is 75% lower than the existing NG-based DRI-EAF route and 85% lower than the BF-BOF route. Moreover, the proposed system possibly has lower GWP values than the renewable hydrogen-based DRI-EAF route. The proposed system has an estimated cradle-to-gate GWP of 251 kg CO 2 eq./t crude steel, of which 80% is from upstream emissions. Combined with CO 2 storage, the GWP of the proposed system is a net negative, estimated at −845 kg CO 2 eq./t crude steel for the selected system boundary. In addition to GWP, other non-climate impact indicators are also evaluated to identify potential burden shifting. The results highlight the emissions reduction potential of the novel biosyngas DRI production route. Large-scale deployment, however, requires sustainable forest management and adequate CCS infrastructure, along with a strong, long-term policy framework to incentivise the transitions. [Display omitted] • The LCA of steel production via biosyngas-direct reduced iron (DRI) route is studied. • Scenario analysis considers technical parameters, policy aspect and market dynamic. • The climate impact is 75–85% lower than that of conventional fossil-based steel. • The biomass supply chain contributes around 20% to the overall climate impact. • Climate impact of the proposed system combined with CCS is −0.8 t CO 2 eq./t steel. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Lack of natural stone and costly expense of purchasing high-quality aggregate promote the utilization of steel slag. Asphalt mixtures incorporating basic oxygen furnace (BOF) steel slag as coarse aggregate were prepared and subsequently subjected to laboratory tests to determine the engineering properties of asphalt concrete. Results showed that the addition of steel slag into asphalt mixtures had high resistance to permanent deformation and moisture-induced damage. Steel slag included angular and rough textured particles that would enhance the interlocking mechanism and provide good mechanical properties. According to the laboratory results, a test road was constructed in 2012 by using three different types of asphalt mixtures as follows: stone mastic asphalt with BOF (SMA-BOF), dense-graded asphalt concrete with BOF (DGAC-BOF), and dense-graded asphalt concrete with natural aggregate (DGAC-NA). The rut depth of the SMA-BOF section was lowest among the three sites even though it was subject to high stress induced by braking, accelerating and turning vehicles. Surveys for pavement performance were conducted at scheduled intervals. The ride quality and the friction characteristics of both BOF sections performed as well as or better than the section constructed using natural aggregate. Field data indicated that steel slag could be used as a surface course aggregate in locations where traffic is expected to perform heavy braking and cornering maneuvers. No rutting, cracking, or other failures have been observed to any significant extent on the BOF sections since they opened to traffic throughout the three-year period. Test results suggest that the use of steel slag as coarse aggregate substitute in surface courses be technically appropriate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present here a first-principles study of the sector coupling between a thermochemical carbon dioxide (CO 2) splitting cycle and existing blast furnace – basic oxygen furnace (BF-BOF) steel making for cost-effective decarbonisation. A double perovskite, Ba 2 Ca 0.66 Nb 0.34 FeO 6 , is proposed for the thermochemical splitting of CO 2 , a viable candidate due to its low reaction temperatures, high carbon monoxide (CO) yields, and 100% selectivity towards CO. The CO produced by the TC cycle replaces expensive metallurgical coke for the reduction of iron ore to metallic iron in the blast furnace (BF). The CO 2 produced from the BF is used in the TC cycle to produce more CO, therefore creating a closed carbon loop, allowing for the decoupling of steel production from greenhouse gas emissions. Techno-economic analysis of the implementation of this system in UK BF-BOFs could reduce steel sector emissions by 88% while increasing the cost-competitiveness of UK steel on the global market through cost reduction. After five years, this system would save the UK steel industry £1.28 billion while reducing UK-wide emissions by 2.9%. Implementation of this system in the world's BF-BOFs could allow the steel sector to decarbonise in line with the Paris Climate Agreement to limit warming to 1.5 °C. • Decarbonisation of BF-BOF through thermochemical closed carbon looping. • Demonstration of mass and energy flows of thermochemical BF-BOF system. • 88% emissions reduction of UK steel industry through £720 million investment. • Decarbonisation without retiring of existing BF-BOF, reducing stranded assets. • After 5 years, £1.28 billion savings and total UK-wide emissions reduction of 2.9%. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Realizing the conservation and circulation of steel is of great significance to the global low-carbon and sustainable development, which requires the joint efforts from both the supply and demand sides. The first step for these efforts begins with the in-depth understanding of the steel use panorama, including steel flows in the production system and steel footprints in the consumption system. This study provides a unified methodological basis for tracing and analysing the steel use from production to consumption, taking China as a case study. By combing material flow analysis with the extended input-output approach, this study traced China's steel use from iron ore, intermediate products, end-use products to direct consumption, embodied consumption and final use in 2018. Based on this, policy implications for China's steel sustainable development were put forward from both supply and demand sides. The results indicate that investment drove 75.1% of China's steel production; construction accounted for 58.6% of China's direct steel consumption; the service industry's embodied steel consumption accounted for 6.8% of China's total steel consumption, although without direct steel consumption; and scrap accounted for 21.5% of China's steel sources, of which 56.7% entered basic oxygen furnaces rather than electric arc furnaces. Therefore, transforming economic growth model is crucial to reducing steel demand. Currently, construction should be the focus of efforts to improve material efficiency, while in the future, policies should guide the dematerialization of the service. From the perspective of production, the pathway lock-in should be broken for promoting China's steel recycling and low-carbon development. • Combining MFA with EIO to trace steel use from production to consumption. • Investment dominated the use of steel in China, driving 75.1% of steel production. • Construction accounted for 58.6% of China's direct steel consumption. • There are 6.8% of China's total steel consumption embodied in the services. • 56.7% of China's scrap entered the BOF rather than the EAF. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Basic-oxygen furnace (BOF) slag is the second abundant by-product from the steel-making process. It is not readily recycled for high phosphorus content and volume instability. To eliminate its phosphorus-hosting dicalcium silicate (C2S) and volumetrically unstable free-lime, reductive heating experiments on BOF-slag are carried out at 1300-1600 °C using quartz-sand or serpentine as a basicity modifier. In the products, C2S and free-lime are consumed through reacting with CaO and MgO, which are produced by Ca-ferrite and Mg-wustite reduction, respectively, to form merwinite and akermanite. The products are also characterized by silicate-metal segregation and the extent of that increases with increasing temperature and decreasing particle size of starting mixtures. Thermodynamic calculations show that phosphorus in C2S is mostly converted to Fe2P in the metal domain. Compared to the slag-serpentine experiments, the slag-quartz experiments resulted in higher extents of silicate-metal segregation with lower phosphorus contents of ≈0.1% in the silicate domain, which therefore is recyclable. To optimize silicate-metal segregation for recycling BOF-slag, it is suggested (i) bringing the BOF-slag composition within the low-temperature side of the C2S-merwinite-akermanite Alkemade triangle by adding quartz-sand; (ii) reductively heating to 1500-1600 °C; and (iii) cooling slowly then quenching to suppress C2S crystallization from melts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Small Fe-based droplets have been heated to a molten phase suspended within a slag medium to replicate a partial environment within the basic oxygen furnace (BOF). The confocal scanning laser microscope (CSLM) has been used as a heating platform to interrogate the effect of impurities and their transfer across the metal/slag interface, on the emulsification of the droplet into the slag medium. The samples were then examined through X-ray computer tomography (XCT) giving the mapping of emulsion dispersion in 3D space, calculating the changing of interfacial area between the two materials, and changes of material volume due to material transfer between metal and slag. Null experiments to rule out thermal gradients being the cause of emulsification have been conducted as well as replication of the previously reported study by Assis et al.[] which has given insights into the mechanism of emulsification. Finally chemical analysis was conducted to discover the transfer of oxygen to be the cause of emulsification, leading to a new study of a system with undergoing oxygen equilibration. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Power-to-gas (PtG) technologies offer a promising approach for decarbonization of energy-intensive industries, particular the iron and steel (I&S) sector, which depends on specific chemical feedstock and processes that are not currently directly electrifiable. However, PtG implementation faces challenges in the medium term related to the carbon footprint of electricity networks, decoupling process applications from variable renewable energy inputs, and economic feasibility. In this study, the design, energy, emissions, cost, and hourly operation of a power-to-hydrogen (PtH 2)-based direct reduction of iron (DRI)-electric arc furnace (EAF) system, are investigated for solar energy-rich conditions in the near- to medium term (2030) with the intent to facilitate the deployment of low-carbon DRI-EAF steel making. A plant hourly operating and sizing methodology is developed based on PtH 2 and use of renewable, low-cost solar photovoltaic (PV) electricity and H 2 storage to counteract grid emissions and cost. The analysis approach is generically applicable to different solar-rich locations and other variable renewable electricity sources. For base-case system design/operating conditions, the emission intensity of the PtH 2 -I&S process is found to be abated from 890 to 567 kgCO 2 /tLS (∼36%), in absence of EAF scrap steel use, relative to the use of grid electricity only with no H 2 storage, with a slight reduction in the levelized of cost steel (C LS) at 618 USD/tLS. Relative to conventional natural gas (NG)-DRI-EAF and blast/oxygen furnace (BF-BOF) processes, emission intensity is reduced by ∼43–60% and ∼53–74%, respectively. At off-base case PV and water electrolysis capacities, steel making emission intensity reductions of ∼40% relative to conventional NG DRI-EAF are achievable at normalized PV capacities, α = 3, relative to the plant nominal hourly electricity demand, and normalized electrolysis capacities, β ≥ 1.3, relative to the nominal hourly capacity requirement, while maintaining C LS within less than +25% of NG DRI-EAF. Based on the performance improvement and cost reduction potential for electrolysis and solar PV, the sub-space of normalized PV and electrolysis capacities yielding a ∼40% reduction in emission intensity within the above C LS limit would be significantly enlarged towards lower PV capacities (α ≥ 2) and electrolysis capacities (β ≥ 1.2). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Steel is the most important alloy used in oil and gas industry from production and processing to the distribution of refined products. In this research is analyzed the production technology of steel intended for long pipeline used in conveying gas and oil in the natural gas and oil industries. Data from 14 melts were analyzed. The basic oxygen furnace (BOF) is used for steelmaking. The secondary refining processes were conducted at the ladle furnace station by forming an active ladle slag and using the mixing of bath with argon. Steel degassing is conducted in RH vacuum degassing equipment. The variation of chemical composition, especially the content of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen, was analyzed according to parameters of industrial technology. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Basic oxygen furnace (BOF) dust is a by-product of steel plants that is rich in iron oxide. Reduction of this by-product may provide reutilization alternatives in steel industry. In this context, kinetic study was conducted using BOF dust pellets applying the forced stepwise isothermal analysis method. This work examines the reduction of BOF dust pellets using a mixture between hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Mass loss of 26 % was obtained after reduction of the BOF. Carbon oxide present in the reducing gas led to the formation of a carbon layer around the pellet between 550 and 650 °C. At higher temperatures, from 700 to 850 °C, it was observed that reduction was controlled by porous diffusion. In the range 900-1,000 °C, the control mechanism was determined as reactive species diffusion through metallic alloy lattice in individual particles. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A process model for basic oxygen furnace is in development. The full model will include a 2-D axisymmetric turbulent flow model for iron melt, a steel scrap melting model, and a chemical reaction model. A theoretical basis for scrap melting model is introduced in this paper and an in-house implementation of the model is tested in this article independently from the other parts of the full process model. The model calculates a melting curve for the scrap piece and the heat and carbon mass exchange between the melt and the scrap. A temperature and carbon concentration-dependent material data are used for heat capacity, thermal conductivity, and diffusion coefficient. The equations are discretized into a moving grid, which is uncommon in literature in the context of scrap melting. A good agreement is found between the modeling results and experiments from literature. Also a heat transfer correlation for dimensionless Nusselt number is determined using the numerical results. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]