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Prior solutions for routing to multi-instantiated destinations simply adapt existing routing algorithms designed for single-instance destinations, or rely on flooding techniques. In this paper, a new approach for routing to multi-instantiated destinations is introduced, and the Multiple Instance Destination Routing (MIDR) framework is presented as an example of the approach. MIDR uses only distance information to multi-instantiated destinations, without routers having to establish overlays, know the network topology, use complete paths to destination instances, or know about all the instances of destinations. MIDR can be used in name-based content routing, IP unicast routing, multicasting, and anycasting; even in scenarios where the network topology is highly dynamic such as in the case of MANETs. It is shown that MIDR provides multiple loop-free paths to destination instances. Extensive simulation-based experiments performed in the context of MANETs show that MIDR outperforms traditional approaches based on unicast protocols and that it scales to large networks.

Geographic routing has been considered as an attractive approach for resource-constrained wireless sensor networks (WSNs) since it exploits local location information instead of global topology information to route data. However, this routing approach often suffers from the routing hole (i.e., an area free of nodes in the direction closer to destination) in various environments such as buildings and obstacles during data delivery, resulting in route failure. Currently, existing geographic routing protocols tend to walk along only one side of the routing holes to recover the route, thus achieving suboptimal network performance such as longer delivery delay and lower delivery ratio. Furthermore, these protocols cannot guarantee that all packets are delivered in an energy-efficient manner once encountering routing holes. In this paper, we focus on addressing these issues and propose an energy-aware dual-path geographic routing (EDGR) protocol for better route recovery from routing holes. EDGR adaptively utilizes the location information, residual energy, and the characteristics of energy consumption to make routing decisions, and dynamically exploits two node-disjoint anchor lists, passing through two sides of the routing holes, to shift routing path for load balance. Moreover, we extend EDGR into three-dimensional (3D) sensor networks to provide energy-aware routing for routing hole detour. Simulation results demonstrate that EDGR exhibits higher energy efficiency, and has moderate performance improvements on network lifetime, packet delivery ratio, and delivery delay, compared to other geographic routing protocols in WSNs over a variety of communication scenarios passing through routing holes. The proposed EDGR is much applicable to resource-constrained WSNs with routing holes.

This work describes a clean-slate inter-domain routing protocol designed to meet the needs of the future mobile Internet. In particular, we describe the edge-aware inter-domain routing (EIR) protocol which provides new abstractions, such as aggregated-nodes (aNodes) and virtual-links (vLinks) for expressing network topologies and edge network properties necessary to address mobility related routing scenarios which are inadequately supported by the border gateway protocol (BGP) in use today. Specific use-cases addressed by EIR include emerging mobility service scenarios such as multi-homing across WiFi and cellular, multipath routing over several access networks, and anycast access from mobile devices to replicated cloud services. It is shown that EIR can be used to realize efficient routing strategies for the mobility use-cases under consideration, while also providing support for a range of inter-domain routing policies currently associated with BGP. Simulation results for protocol overhead are presented for a global-scale CAIDA topology, leading to an identification of parameters necessary to obtain a good balance between overhead and routing table convergence time. A Click-based proof-of-concept implementation of EIR on the ORBIT testbed is described and used to validate performance and functionality for selected mobility use-cases, including mobile data services with open WiFi access points and mobile platforms such as buses operating in an urban area.

International audience; This paper studies the routing protocol "Lightweight On-demand Ad hoc Distance-vector Routing Protocol Next Generation (LOADng)", designed to enable efficient, scalable and secure routing in low power and lossy networks. As a reactive protocol, it does not maintain a routing table for all destinations in the network, but initiates a route discovery to a destination only when there is data to be sent to that destination to reduce routing overhead and memory consumption. Designed with a modular approach, LOADng can be extended with additional components for adapting the protocol to different topologies, traffic, and data-link layer characteristics. This paper studies several such additional components for extending LOADng: support for smart route requests and expanding ring search, an extension permitting maintaining collection trees, a fast rerouting extension. All those extensions are examined from the aspects of specification, interoperability with other mechanisms, security vulnerabilities, performance and applicability. A general framework is also proposed to secure the routing protocol.

Network stability is a key performance metric in supporting real time communication over wireless networks. Because of high bandwidth demand and dynamic traffic variation, several paths in Wireless Mesh Networks (WMNs) are expected to be unstable. High levels of network instability can lead to interferences, packet losses and high delays. In this paper, we address the stability problem of WMNs. Instability in these networks is caused mainly by link quality fluctuations and frequent route flapping. First, we present the key factors that may cause network instability. Then, we propose a new technique, called Node Stability-based Routing (NSR), using the entropy function to define a node stability and a probability function to select an appropriate gateway. Simulation results show that NSR can significantly improve the overall network performance compared to techniques using interference and channel switching (MIC), Expected Transmission count (ETX) or load at gateways as a routing metric, Reinforcement learning-based best path to best gateway (RLBDR), and nearest gateway (i.e., shortest path to gateway).

While the throughput demand for a backbone router keeps increasing constantly, both routing and switching of packets are facing tough challenges for running faster. Currently, the prefix trie-based routing algorithms for IP lookup are playing a key role in building high performance routing systems. We propose in this article a scalable routing architecture for pipelining any prefix trie-based routing algorithm that links nodes by pointers. All the prefixes in a routing table are classified into the short and the long categories to organize as a quick table and a set of prefix tries, respectively, where the tries’ nodes are evenly distributed into multiple memory blocks using a randomization technique. Each arriving packet finds its route information by looking up the quick table at first and then traverses a corresponding prefix trie if necessary. A routing buffer is employed to cache packet arrivals that suffer memory access contentions when visiting nodes of the prefix tries. The scheduling of queuing packets to access the memory blocks is modeled as a bipartite matching problem. The performance of the proposed architecture is evaluated by investigating the memory requirements and the maximum throughput with comparison to the linear and the circular pipelines. The results for both the analytical queuing model and the simulation experiments indicate that this architecture can be a potential candidate for building high bandwidth routing engines of backbone routers.

IP lookup and routing table update affect the speed at which a router forwards packets. This study proposes a new data structure for dynamic router tables used in IP lookup and update, called the Multi-inherited Search Tree (MIST). Partitioning each prefix according to an index value and removing the relationships among prefixes enables performing IP lookup operations efficiently. Because a prefix trie is used as a substructure, memory can be consumed and dynamic router-table operations can be performed efficiently. Experiments using real IPv4 routing databases indicated that the MIST uses memory efficiently and performs lookup, insert, and delete operations effectively.

The Internet routing system faces serious scalability challenges due to the growing number of IP prefixes that needs to be propagated throughout the network. Although IP prefixes are assigned hierarchically and roughly align with geographic regions, today’s Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) and operational practices do not exploit opportunities to aggregate routing information. We present DRAGON, a distributed route-aggregation technique whereby nodes analyze BGP routes across different prefixes to determine which of them can be filtered while respecting the routing policies for forwarding data-packets. DRAGON works with BGP, can be deployed incrementally, and offers incentives for Autonomous Systems (ASs) to upgrade their router software. We illustrate the design of DRAGON through a number of examples, prove its properties while developing a theoretical model of route aggregation, and evaluate its performance. Our experiments with realistic AS-level topologies, assignments of IP prefixes, and routing policies show that DRAGON reduces the number of prefixes in each AS by at least 70% with minimal stretch in the lengths of AS-paths traversed by data packets.

Due to the ever-increasing physical link speed, routing table size and internet traffic, modern routers have been the major bottleneck to process packages with a high throughout. As the most time-consumption task of routers, designing efficient IP lookup schemes for IPv6 face new challenges. In this paper, we design parallel bloom filter for IPv6, and implement it on Graphics Processing Unit to develop a novel GPU-accelerated software router, GRv6. Moreover, we design two schemes to support dynamic prefix update, i.e., dynamic prefix insert scheme and dynamic prefix delete scheme. To evaluate the performance of GRv6, we implement it with NVIDIA GeForce GTX 580 and utilize 5 real-life IPv6 routing tables to demonstrate that the IP lookup engine could achieve 60 Gbps for static routing tables, and 40 Gbps for dynamic routing tables with 3000 updates per second.

One of the crucial building blocks for Information Centric Networking (ICN) is a name based routing scheme that can route directly on content names instead of IP addresses. However, moving the address space from IP addresses to content names brings the scalability issues to a whole new level, due to two reasons. First, name aggregation is not as trivial a task as the IP address aggregation in BGP routing. Second, the number of addressable contents in the Internet is several orders of magnitude higher than the number of IP addresses. With the current size of the Internet, name based, anycast routing is very challenging specially when routing efficiency is of prime importance. We propose a name-based routing scheme $\alpha$ Route for ICN that offers efficient bandwidth usage, guaranteed content lookup and scalable routing table size. $\alpha$ Route consists of two components: an alphanumeric Distributed Hash Table (DHT) and an overlay to underlay (Internet topology) mapping algorithm. Simulation results show that $\alpha$ Route performs significantly better than Content Centric Network (CCN) in terms of network bandwidth usage, lookup latency and load balancing.

International audience; When a spanning tree is built on top of a wireless network and an appropriate labelling scheme is applied, the complexity of the routing mechanism in terms of memory usage and control messages can be drastically reduced using compact routing. In this paper, we propose multipath prefix routing (MPR), a multipath routing protocol for wireless sensor networks. MPR is a hybrid (both reactive and proactive) protocol that operates on an already built spanning tree rooted at the sink (the collect station). Besides the tree path, additional paths are built based on an appropriate labelling scheme and neighbourhood relationships. For practical implementation, we propose and evaluate two different labelling schemes. We mainly show that in a perfect W-ary tree, the additional number of bits required to encode labels is at most (H−1)(H−1) where H is the height of the tree. Finally, we apply MPR to the ZigBee standard and evaluate its performance using simulations. MPR has a small state routing while control messages overhead is maintained low compared to traditional multipath routing protocols.

This paper presents a new hybrid protocol which combines the end-to-end routing of traditional wireless mobile ad-hoc networks (MANETs) with the store-carry-forward routing paradigm of delay-tolerant networks (DTNs). An extensive evaluation over a wide range of topologies, from highly connected to highly disconnected typologies, shows that this protocol can significantly improve performance in most cases. This newly developed protocol is named OLSR-Opportunistic (OLSR-OPP), and is an extension of the optimised link state routing (OLSR) protocol. Our newly proposed protocol combines the efficiency of the OLSR-based MANET end-to-end routing and the flexibility of the store-and-forward concept of DTNs. Our protocol functionality was validated with a simple scenario setup and worked according to our specification. We then extensively evaluated our proposed protocol over a systematically selected range of topologies and mobility scenarios, ranging from very high to very minimal network connectivity, and effectively demonstrated its significant improvement in terms of packet delivery ratio over traditional MANET and DTN routing. The simulation result shows that the OLSR-OPP significantly outperforms the original OLSR and DTN spray-and-wait protocol. The results further demonstrate the trade-off between protocol performance and overheads via the tuning of the copy_count OLSR-OPP protocol parameter.

Existing secure interdomain routing protocols can verify validity properties about individual routes, such as whether they correspond to a real network path. It is often useful to verify more complex properties relating to the route decision procedure - for example, whether the chosen route was the best one available, or whether it was consistent with the network's peering agreements. However, this is difficult to do without knowing a network's routing policy and full routing state, which are not normally disclosed. In this paper, we show how a network can allow its peers to verify a number of nontrivial properties of its interdomain routing decisions without revealing any additional information. If all the properties hold, the peers learn nothing beyond what the interdomain routing protocol already reveals; if a property does not hold, at least one peer can detect this and prove the violation. We present SPIDeR, a practical system that applies this approach to the Border Gateway Protocol, and we report results from an experimental evaluation to demonstrate that SPIDeR has a reasonable overhead.

We present a bio-inspired unicast routing protocol for vehicular Ad Hoc Networks which uses the cellular attractor selection mechanism to select next hops. The proposed unicast routing protocol based on attractor selecting (URAS) is an opportunistic routing protocol, which is able to change itself adaptively to the complex and dynamic environment by routing feedback packets. We further employ a multi-attribute decision-making strategy, the Technique for Order Preference by Similarity to an Ideal Solution (TOPSIS), to reduce the number of redundant candidates for next-hop selection, so as to enhance the performance of attractor selection mechanism. Once the routing path is found, URAS maintains the current path or finds another better path adaptively based on the performance of current path, that is, it can self-evolution until the best routing path is found. Our simulation study compares the proposed solution with the state-of-the-art schemes, and shows the robustness and effectiveness of the proposed routing protocol and the significant performance improvement, in terms of packet delivery, end-to-end delay, and congestion, over the conventional method.

The design of routing protocol with energy efficiency and security is a challenging task. To overcome this challenge, we propose energy-efficient secured routing protocol. The objective of our work is to provide a secured routing protocol, which is energy efficient. To provide security for both link and message without relying on the third party, we provide security to the protocol by choosing a secure link for routing using Secure Optimized Link State Routing Protocol. Each node chooses multipoint relay nodes amongst the set of one-hop neighbors, so as to reach all two-hop neighbors. The access control entity authorizes nodes announcing the node identification to the network. In addition, the access control entity signs a public key Ki, a private key ki, and the certificate Ci required by an authorized node to obtain the group key. Each node maintains a route table with power status as one of its entry. After selecting the link, on requirement of a new route, we check nodes' power status in its routing table and then accordingly arise a route. Then, we perform group key distribution using the generated keys using a small number of messages which helps reducing energy consumption. The group key can be altered periodically to avoid nonauthorized nodes and to avoid the use of the same group key in more than some amount of data. Then, we provide communication privacy for both message sender and message recipient using Secure Source Anonymous Message Authentication Scheme. Thereby, the message sender or the sending node generates a source anonymous message authentication for message for releasing each message based on the MES scheme. Hence, our approach will provide message content authenticity without relying on any trusted third parties.

In this paper we study energy conservation in the Internet. We observe that different traffic volumes on a link can result in different energy consumption; this is mainly due to such technologies as trunking (IEEE 802.1AX), adaptive link rates, etc. We design a green Internet routing scheme, where the routing can lead traffic in a way that is green. We differ from previous studies where they switch network components, such as line cards and routers, into sleep mode. We do not prune the Internet topology. We first develop a power model, and validate it using real commercial routers. Instead of developing a centralized optimization algorithm, which requires additional protocols such as MPLS to materialize in the Internet, we choose a hop-by-hop approach. It is thus much easier to integrate our scheme into the current Internet. We progressively develop three algorithms, which are loop-free, substantially reduce energy consumption, and jointly consider green and QoS requirements such as path stretch. We further analyze the power saving ratio, the routing dynamics, and the relationship between hop-by-hop green routing and QoS requirements. We comprehensively evaluate our algorithms through simulations on synthetic, measured, and real topologies, with synthetic and real traffic traces. We show that the power saving in the line cards can be as much as 50 percent.

This paper proposes a novel energy-aware adaptive routing solution to face the energy consumption problem in IP networks, exploiting the IP over IP tunneling technique. The problem of minimizing the number of used links by configuring a set of tunnels, referred to as energy minimized tunneling (EMT), is modeled as an integer linear programming problem. The general EMT problem is then slightly modified by adding a set of constraints to make it more applicable to real networks scenario. With respect to previously proposed solutions, the EMT formulation exploits IP tunneling to change traffic routing assuring three main features: 1) no modifications to both data and control planes of current IP routers, so representing a feasible short-term solution for actual IP networks; 2) no need of IP routing protocols convergence to modify the routing paths, so avoiding routing instabilities; and 3) performance comparable with flow-based solutions requiring the deployment of a connection-oriented protocol. We propose a practical solution, called Virtual Interface oN Off (VINO), that exploits the tunnel aggregation mechanism in order to reduce EMT operational complexity. VINO works in two steps and it is based on the preconfiguration of a limited set of (virtual) tunnel interfaces along with a set of static routes on IP routers; thus, these virtual interfaces are dynamically activated and deactivated according to traffic variations. The performance analysis carried out demonstrates that VINO is able to outperform IP green routing solutions proposed in the literature, in terms of energy efficiency.

This paper proposes a gateway framework for in-vehicle networks (IVNs) based on the controller area network (CAN), FlexRay, and Ethernet. The proposed gateway framework is designed to be easy to reuse and verify to reduce development costs and time. The gateway framework can be configured, and its verification environment is automatically generated by a program with a dedicated graphical user interface (GUI). The gateway framework provides state-of-the-art functionalities that include parallel reprogramming, diagnostic routing, network management (NM), dynamic routing update, multiple routing configuration, and security. The proposed gateway framework was developed, and its performance was analyzed and evaluated.

Nodes of Mobile ad-hoc network usually use the energy-limited battery. Balanced energy consumptionis important to maintain path`s stability. In this paper, we focus on improving the stability of the routing path in mobile ad-hoc networks. For that purpose, we propose a new routing protocol to find the highest minimum node residual energy path among shortest paths. The largest path of minimum value of the remain energy has a longer life than other paths to improve the reliability to data-transmission. Using ns-3 simulator, we show that the proposed routing protocol can provide more long-life stable routing path than AODV and EA-AODV.

For effective routing in wireless mesh networks, we proposed a routing metric, expected path throughput (EPT), and a routing protocol, expected path throughput routing protocol (EPTR), to maximize the network throughput . The routing metric EPT is based on the estimated available bandwidth of the routing path, considering the link quality, the inter- and intra-flow interference and the path length. To calculate the EPT of a routing path, we first calculate the expected bandwidth of the link and the clique, and then consider the decay caused by the path length. Based on EPT, a distributed routing protocol EPTR is proposed, aiming to balance the network load and maximize the network throughput. Extensive simulations are conducted to evaluate the performance of the proposed solution. The results show that the proposed EPTR can effectively balance the network load, achieve high network throughput, and out-perform the existing routing protocols with the routing metrics previously proposed for wireless mesh networks.

Mobile Ad-Hoc Network (MANET) uses an anonymous routing protocol for security purpose. This protocol hides nodes original identity from outsider, so that observer cannot threaten the security of network. An anonymous communication method in MANETs is mostly classified into three type s reactive methods, proactive methods and anonymous routing technique. Other reactive routing techniques involves hop-by-hop encryption and redundant traffic routing .This routing methods either generate high cost or cannot provide full anonymity protection to sources, destinations, data and routes Mobile Ad Hoc Networks (MANETs) uses various anonymous routing protocols to support anonymity protection to sources and destination and data. Therefore to offer a high anonymity protection, Anonymous Location-based Efficient Routing protocol (ALERT) is proposed. Basic idea behind ALERT is to dynamically partition the network field into zones and randomly chooses nodes in zones as intermediate relay nodes, which creates a non-traceable anonymous route.

ad hoc networks (MANETs) are composed of a set of stations (nodes) communicating through wireless channels, without any fixed backbone support in which nodes are allowed to join and leave the network at any point of time. MANETs are generally more vulnerable to information and physical security threats than wired networks, so security is an essential requirement in MANETs to provide secured communication between mobile nodes. One of the most common attacks against routing in MANETs is the Black Hole attack. A black hole is a malicious node uses the routing protocol to advertise itself as having the shortest path to the node whose packets it wants to intercept. In this paper, we attempt to focus on improving the security of one of the popular routing protocol for MANETS, namely the Ad hoc On Demand Distance Vector (AODV) routing protocol to avoid black hole attacks. The proposed Intrusion Avoidance System (IASAODV) can be considered as modification of the AODV protocol and can be used to detect and avoid the black hole attack. The conducted experimental results using Network Simulator NS-2.35 show an improvement in Packet Delivery Ratio (PDR), Normalized Routing Load (NRL) and throughput using the proposed protocol compared with AODV routing Protocol in the case of existing black hole attack.

Because of complicated security policy collisions and twisted interest conflicts in network domains, inter-domain routing security has been a challenge of secure routing. At present most of related researches focus on the authentication of routing source and true path, but seldom addresses another point of whether the routing decision process matches expected policy. In this paper, a multipath inter-domain routing decision verification protocol was designed, which can verify whether an autonomous domain (AD) keeps its promise about choosing appropriate M from N paths that have the same destination and are received from upstream ADs, and sending to a downstream AD. According to the analysis, the protocol is valid and can protect privacy of participants, as well as can resist attacks such as forgery, modification and replay etc. and deploy on internet incrementally.

The interest shown by some community of researchers to autonomous drones or UAVs (Unmanned Aerial Vehicles) has increased with the advent of wireless communication networks. These networks allow UAVs to cooperate more efficiently in an ad hoc manner in order to achieve specific tasks in specific environments. To do so, each drone navigates autonomously while staying connected with other nodes in its group via radio links. This connectivity can deliberately be maintained for a while constraining the mobility of the drones. This will be suitable for the drones involved in a given path of a given transmission between a source and a destination. This constraint could be removed at the end of the transmission process and the mobility of each concerned drone becomes again independent from the others. In this work, we have proposed a bio-inspired routing protocol for UAVs called BR- AODV. The protocol takes advantage of a well known ad hoc routing protocol for on-demand route computation, and the Boids of Reynolds mechanism for connectivity and route maintaining while data is being transmitted. The performances of BR-AODV were evaluated and compared to those of classical AODV routing protocol and the results show that BR-AODV outperforms AODV in terms of delay, throughput and packet loss.

The balance of searching time and storage space is a problem in routing lookup. The algorithm has solved it to some extent. It is based on IPv6 prefix distribution and adopts different approaches to divide and compress different prefixes. The prefixes that can be divided exactly are concentrated compression. Other prefixes that can't be divided exactly are handled with multi-branch tree method. According to the experiment, this method not only improves the efficiency of routing lookup by parallel computing, but also reduces the space and the frequency of accessing RAM. And it reduces the difficulty of software design and the pressure of hardware.

Delay Tolerant Network (DTN) has the potential to connect nodes in an environment where an end-to-end path may not be available between source and destination. Resources constraint is among the most serious issues in DTN. In this paper, we consider the scenario where we want to transmit an information (message) from a source to a group of people in the network area. Using the epidemic routing protocol the message can reach its destinations as fast as possible, but the protocol consumes too much resources. We model the messages propagation under the epidemic routing protocol by an Ordinary Differential Equation (ODE). And, we derive the optimal retention of a message by a node, taking into account that all nodes are infected. Simulations results show that, using the proposed optimal control in epidemic routing context, we can reach the same performances of epidemic routing while minimizing the resource consumption.

A network which merges the usage of the public and the private networks and uses security software for the purpose of compressing, encrypting and masking the digital packets that are being transmitted in the network is called as Virtual Private Network (VPN). In VPN, the communication between the user ends is maintained such that it appears as if the source end is directly linked to the destination end over a concealed leased line. The private network, VPN uses the public network such as internet to link the remote locations with the users. In this study, we propose a new reliable protocol called as Topology Aware Reliable Routing Protocol (TARRP) for large scale VPN and compare its performance with the traditional protocol, Boarder Gateway Protocol (BGP). In this protocol, the communication between the end to end nodes takes place in two phases: Routing phase and authentication phase. In the routing phase, the upstream and the downstream routing paths are determined by the source node using the topology learning protocol. Based on the dynamic failure information of links, the sender selects the failure-free path towards the destination. In the authentication phase, the VPN gateway authenticates the packet before it is transmitted through the core. Thus, this technique efficiently allows the packet to be transmitted with ensured security. By simulation results, we show that our proposed protocol is better than the traditional routing protocol of VPN.

Delay tolerant networks (DTNs) are characterized by high end-to-end latency, frequent disconnection, and opportunistic communication over unreliable wireless links. In this paper, we design and validate a dynamic trust management protocol for secure routing optimization in DTN environments in the presence of well-behaved, selfish and malicious nodes. We develop a novel model-based methodology for the analysis of our trust protocol and validate it via extensive simulation. Moreover, we address dynamic trust management, i.e., determining and applying the best operational settings at runtime in response to dynamically changing network conditions to minimize trust bias and to maximize the routing application performance. We perform a comparative analysis of our proposed routing protocol against Bayesian trust-based and non-trust based (PROPHET and epidemic) routing protocols. The results demonstrate that our protocol is able to deal with selfish behaviors and is resilient against trust-related attacks. Furthermore, our trust-based routing protocol can effectively trade off message overhead and message delay for a significant gain in delivery ratio. Our trust-based routing protocol operating under identified best settings outperforms Bayesian trust-based routing and PROPHET, and approaches the ideal performance of epidemic routing in delivery ratio and message delay without incurring high message or protocol maintenance overhead.

We analyze the effects of dynamic optical circuit setup on IP routing in general and on two routing mechanisms in particular, i.e., explicit routing and shortest-path-first routing. We present analytical models for computing the size and placement of optical circuits and propose model adaptations driven by the IP router system design. The results show that without careful consideration of intrinsic capabilities of IP routing protocol and forwarding, the size and location of optical circuits used can be vastly underestimated, also leading to significant disruptions in real networks. We present the Optical Bypass mechanisms and show that these methods, unlike traditional IP routing-based solutions, affect a comparatively lower number of IP routes and can be computed near-optimally, even under unknown traffic matrix conditions, making them effective and feasible.

Many operators run more than one routing instance-- more than one routing protocol, or more than one instance of a given routing protocol--in their networks. Route election and route redistribution are mechanisms introduced by router vendors to interconnect routing instances. We show that these mechanisms do not heed basic performance goals. Especially, we show that, in general, they do not allow network configurations that are simultaneously free from routing anomalies and resilient to failures. We then propose a new form of interconnection that overcomes the limitations of route election and route redistribution, permitting the configuration of a resilient and efficient routing system. We conduct a thorough study of this new form of interconnection, presenting conditions for its correctness and optimality. The precepts of the study are applied to routing instances substantiated by the current Internal Gateway Protocols of the Internet: RIP, OSPF, IS-IS, IGRP, and EIGRP.

In ad hoc networks, ZRP (Zone Routing Protocol) combines a proactive routing protocol with an on-demand routing protocol. Proactive routing is adopted in the intra-zone, and on-demand routing is adopted in the inter-zone. During the process of the inter-zone routing maintenance in ZRP, there is a low reliability problem. So NHRP (New Hybrid Routing Protocol) was proposed, and the protocol reliability relationship between ZRP and NHRP was demonstrated by a comparative analysis on route reliabilities of ZRP and NHRP. The theoretical analysis shows that NHRP takes higher reliability than ZRP.

Blueweb is a self-organizing Bluetooth-based multihop network equipped with a scatternet formation algorithm and a hybrid routing protocol. The routing protocol combines the reactive method globally and the proactive method locally to discover the optimal path for packet transmission. In Blueweb, the route master maintains the global topology information and each master maintains its own N-tier routing information. In this paper, a tier number decision algorithm is used in Blueweb to determine the optimal number of tiers for all the other masters. Our computer simulation results show that this algorithm can efficiently improve the routing performance and reduce the routing maintenance cost for Blueweb routing protocol.

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) has no mechanism to guarantee the consistency between actual routing path and announced routing path in the inter-domain routing. Due to incentives of gaining more economic benefits, malicious Autonomous Systems (AS) could announce inconsistent path and misroute data packets. In this case, routing policies are meaningless, rational ASes are cheated and stability of Internet is destroyed seriously. Existing methods are devoted to securing announce routing path only or discovering path inconsistency with lots of overhead. Based on network accountability, a routing path verification mechanism is proposed to detect path inconsistency. The mechanism enables ASes in the path to generate routing evidence. Routing evidence is produced by analyzing packets in a time slot and is encrypted with the key of AS. With routing evidence, source AS checks every subpath connecting adjacent ASes until it confirms the existence of path inconsistency. The factors that influence the mechanism and the deployment in the real network are also discussed. The experiment results show that it has a good performance from aspects of effectiveness, overhead and scalability.

With the rapid development of the Internet, the de facto inter-domain routing protocol, Border Gateway Protocol (BGP), has become very vulnerable to many attacks. For this, several secure inter-domain protocols have been proposed, most of which are focus on addressing the issue of faking AS path, but cannot address other issues, such as violating routing policies, reachability attacks and so on. Based on the concept of identifier/locator split and routing isolation, we have proposed a secure identifier-based inter-domain Routing, SIR [, which can provide control plane security without using the high overhead mechanism. Then, we here optimize SIR and propose another secure inter-domain routing, Optimized SIR (O-SIR), which introduces a checked path table and records the path which has been checked before in each AS. We present the simulations based on the real world datasets CAIDA and compare the performance between SIR and O-SIR by different deployments and different position of attacks. The results show that O-SIR can reduce 18%-45% communication cost of verifying paths with additional below 0.1% routing table size.

The community structure has been empirically found in many real networks. This paper proposes an efficient Double Shortest Path routing strategy trying to avoid the modules of traffic congestion, which means that we adopt the shortest routing strategy both in the inter-modules and in the intra-module. Simulations show that this routing algorithm is superior to the traditional shortest path routing protocol with appropriate selection of the tunable parameters. In addition, this algorithm can also be improved by integrating it with several alternative routing strategies.

We present a method to find an alternate path, after a link failure, from a source node to a destination node, before the Interior Gateway Protocol (e.g., OSPF or IS-IS) has had a chance to reconverge in response to the failure. The target application is a small (up to tens of nodes) regional access subnetwork of a service provider's network, which is a typical access scale encountered in practice. We illustrate the method and prove that it will find a path if one exists.

Existing schemes have been firstly analyzed for secure routing protocol in Ad hoc networks. Then we present a new scheme for secure routing protocol base on AODV. Security features in the routing protocol include threshold authentication mechanism based on elliptic curve cryptosystem algorithm and improved the process of authentication without relying on the availability of a certificate authority center. Furthermore, the neighbor supervising mechanism combining with reputation mechanism are adopted to strengthen the management and supervision to network nodes, make the whole process of routing protocol under administration and supervision.

Routing Protocols in MANETs have been researched for peer-to-peer services in general. Furthermore, these protocols have been concerned with the fairness service amongst nodes' peers. However, most of those protocols aren't suitable for the data communication especially in hierarchical networks, where the most data flows are vertical like a monitoring system. Furthermore, for the monitoring system, amongst the nodes, one of them (a.k.a. root node) should be employed as a gateway to connect to Internet. Thus, most reporting data from certain nodes are delivered to the root node. Likewise, data should be delivered to the message originator nodes for responsibility. Therefore, a new routing protocol for such networks including the monitoring system is strongly required. This paper proposes a routing protocol based on the binary-tree shaped network, which derives from the general table driven methods' routing manners with DSDV families of MANETs. In conclusion, we verify whether our protocol would be efficiently used in such networks through its performance evaluations with simulation results.

This paper addresses the problem of efficient routing in backbone wireless mesh networks (WMNs) where each mesh router is equipped with multiple radio interfaces and a subset of nodes serve as gateways to the Internet. Most routing schemes have been designed to reduce routing costs by optimizing one metric, e.g., hop count and interference ratio. However, when considering these metrics together, the complexity of the routing problem increases drastically. Thus, an efficient and adaptive routing scheme that takes into account several metrics simultaneously and considers traffic congestion around the gateways is needed. In this paper, we propose an adaptive scheme for routing traffic in WMNs, called Reinforcement Learning-based Distributed Routing (RLBDR), that (1) considers the critical areas around the gateways where mesh routers are much more likely to become congested and (2) adaptively learns an optimal routing policy taking into account multiple metrics, such as loss ratio, interference ratio, load at the gateways and end-to end delay. Simulation results show that RLBDR can significantly improve the overall network performance compared to schemes using either Metric of Interference and Channel switching, Best Path to Best Gateway, Expected Transmission count, nearest gateway (i.e., shortest path to gateway) or load at gateways as a metric for path selection.

Recent standardization efforts are consolidating the role of routing protocol for low-power and lossy networks (RPL) as the standard routing protocol for IPv6-based wireless sensor and actuator networks. Investigating possible attacks against RPL is a top priority to improve the security of the future Internet of Things systems. In this letter, we present the DIO suppression attack , a novel degradation-of-service attack against RPL. Unlike other attacks in the literature, the DIO suppression attack does not require to steal cryptographic keys from some legitimate node. We show that the attack severely degrades the routing service, and it is far less energy-expensive than a jamming attack.

A QoS aware routing protocol for Wireless Mesh Networks is studied in this paper, the QoS metrics taken into account are bandwidth in our studies, end to end delay and stability of the routes. The routing metric reflects the maximal available bandwidth of a routing path, which is calculated based on the available bandwidth of mesh nodes with the consideration of the interference caused by the hidden terminals in WMNs. With the help of admission control decision, QRBC uses the routing metric in the route discovery process to find a QoS guarantee route for the real-time applications. The simulation results demonstrate that the QRBC protocol can find a less interfering and bandwidth guaranteed routing path for real-time flows.

This study proposes a probability routing strategy for improving traffic capability on scale-free networks. Compared with the shortest path routing strategy depending on central nodes largely and the efficient routing strategy avoiding hub routers as much as possible, the probability routing strategy makes use of hub routers more efficiently, transferring approximate average amount of packs of the whole network. Simulation results indicate that the probability routing strategy has the highest network capacity among the three routing strategies. This strategy provides network capacity that can be more than 30 times higher than that of the shortest path routing strategy and over 50% higher than that of the efficient routing strategy. In addition, the average routing path length of our proposed strategy is over 10% shorter than that of the efficient routing strategy and only about 10% longer than that of the shortest path routing strategy.

Mobile Ad-Hoc NETworks (MANET) often require the use of routing protocols to dynamically discover and assign routes over multiple hops as the network's layout changes. There are many different criteria that can be used by a protocol to predict the loss of a connection, to calculate the quality of the route, and to intelligently decide routing paths. In this paper, we investigate the use of the signal strength between nodes as the criteria for dynamic routing in a MANET. The paper provides a method for the calculation of the cost of each route, an explanation of how the routing protocol is implemented, and the experimental results from evaluating the signal strength based protocol with various parameters along with a comparison to BATMAN, OLSR, and BABEL routing protocols.

© 2016 Copyright held by the owner/author(s). Routing events impact multiple paths in the Internet, but current active topology mapping techniques monitor paths independently. Detecting a routing event on one Internet path does not trigger any measurements on other possibly-impacted paths. This approach leads to outdated and inconsistent routing information. We characterize routing events in the Internet and investigate probing strategies to efficiently identify paths impacted by a routing event. Our results indicate that targeted probing can help us quickly remap routing events and maintain more up-to-date and consistent topology maps.

Private IP addressing is commonly used in enterprise networks. Different enterprises or even different locations/business units of the same enterprise may use the same IP address ranges as long while those networks are separate. Consequently, during mergers and acquisitions, or network consolidations within an enterprise, overlapped and conflicted IP segments (subnets) arise frequently. These must be identified and resolved to allow communication between any pair of source and destination hosts in the merged networks. Furthermore, the combined network may unnecessarily use many disparate IP address ranges which increases the size of the routing tables and makes routing integrity verification difficult. In this paper, we identify different conflict scenarios and consider ways of resolving those conflicts to minimize manual changes and to minimize the routing table sizes. The problem turns out to be NP-hard and rather complex, and we devise effective heuristics to solve the problem. By taking some real-world examples, we show that by changing 6-8% of the subnet addresses the outlined method can effectively resolve the subnet conflicts. The scheme also reduces the number of subnet entries by 80-90% by consolidating the subnet entries, which significantly reduces the routing table sizes.

In this paper, we summarize and propose the DTN physical model for deep-space communication. According to deep-space characteristics, we design a new self-adaptive routing protocol for deep-space DTN. The new routing protocol can work well in long-delay and intermittent network environment. We have many contrast simulation experiments on our DTN simulator.

There are two main families of routing schemes: topology-based routing and position-based routing. Topology-based routing can always transmit packets along the shortest path, but the overhead of storage and computation is too high due to huge routing tables. In contrast, position-based routing (also called geographic routing) makes forwarding decisions using geographical location information, thus only maintains a small routing state. But geographic routing might be very inefficient in route selection. Moreover, it may encounter local minimum problem which affects message delivery. In this paper, combining the advantages of topology-based and position-based routing schemes, we propose a novel hierarchical quadtree-based link state routing scheme, called HQLSR. It allocates addresses to all participating nodes based on the structure of quadtree. It makes good use of the convergence of address space to reduce the routing table size. Simulation results show that our scheme compresses routing tables effectively while stretches the path slightly.

Competitive routing across peering links is a notable problem in Internet routing. A few years ago, a proposal to incrementally modify the Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) decision process was done, to improve routing coordination by leveraging on the existing multi-exit discriminator BGP attribute as signaling medium among peering Internet networks. It is called Peering Equilibrium Multipath (PEMP) routing: based on a non-cooperative potential game, it can improve routing stability and efficiency while respecting unilateral routing choice, by supporting strategic multipath forwarding decisions. The contribution of this paper is twofold. First, we specify how weighted load-balancing should be done in PEMP routing and examine the benefits against even load-balancing. Then we document an implementation of PEMP routing in the Quagga open source router, better specifying some aspects. We provide a performance evaluation of the implemented PEMP routing system, showing that the computing overhead is limited.

The Internet routing infrastructure is an obvious target of attack, as compromised routers can be used to stage large scale attacks. While considerable progress has been made on validating the content of routing protocol messages, little use is made of procedures for protecting the path followed by the information exchanged between adjacent routers. When these procedures are used to protect the packets “on the wire”, the necessary parameters are installed manually, and then often left unchanged for five years or more, due to the high cost of making the changes, relative to the cost of the perceived threat. We propose a method for integrating the management of routing protocol security into existing configuration management systems. We outline the design of the data structures that will support automated management of the security relationships among routers, and have constructed YANG models for these data structures. We demonstrate how to manage the distribution of configuration data, using NETCONF and the YANG models. This will facilitate the development of automated key management protocols, which is a necessary first step to achieving higher routing protocol security at a reasonable cost.

Border Gateway Protocol (BGP) is a widely used Internet routing protocol. While several security features have been introduced and implemented to prevent attacks and address routing instabilities, BGP remains vulnerable due to lack of integrity and authentication of BGP messages. BGP operations strongly depend on its security and attacks on BGP adversely influence packet routing. Given the importance of BGP security, several approaches have been developed to enhance security of BGP sessions. The Resource Public Key Infrastructure (RPKI), a specialized Public Key Infrastructure (PKI), was developed to help secure the Internet routing. It uses cryptographically verifiable statements to ensure that Autonomous Systems (ASes), the Internet resource holders, are certifiably linked to the routing information they generate thus resulting in a reliable routing origin. In this paper, we describe a testbed developed for validating route origin and present simulation results.