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Context. The fragmentation of high-mass star-forming regions depends on a variety of physical parameters, including density, the magnetic field, and turbulent gas properties. Aims. We evaluate the importance of the density and magnetic field structures in relation to the fragmentation properties during high-mass star formation. Methods. Observing the large parsec-scale Stokes I millimeter dust continuum emission with the IRAM 30 m telescope and the intermediate-scale (<0.1 pc) polarized submillimeter dust emission with the Submillimeter Array toward a sample of 20 high-mass star-forming regions allows us to quantify the dependence of the fragmentation behavior of these regions on the density and magnetic field structures. Results. Based on the IRAM 30 m data, we infer density distributions n ∝ r−p of the regions with typical power-law slopes p around ~1.5. There is no obvious correlation between the power-law slopes of the density structures on larger clump scales (~1 pc) and the number of fragments on smaller core scales (<0.1 pc). Comparing the large-scale single-dish density profiles to those derived earlier from interferometric observations at smaller spatial scales, we find that the smaller-scale power-law slopes are steeper, typically around ~2.0. The flattening toward larger scales is consistent with the star-forming regions being embedded in larger cloud structures that do not decrease in density away from a particular core. The magnetic fields of several regions appear to be aligned with filamentary structures that lead toward the densest central cores. Furthermore, we find different polarization structures; some regions exhibit central polarization holes, whereas other regions show polarized emission also toward the central peak positions. Nevertheless, the polarized intensities are inversely related to the Stokes I intensities, following roughly a power-law slope of ∝ SI−0.62. We estimate magnetic field strengths between ~0.2 and ~4.5 mG, and we find no clear correlation between magnetic field strength and the fragmentation level of the regions. A comparison of the turbulent to magnetic energies shows that they are of roughly equal importance in this sample. The mass-to-flux ratios range between ~2 and ~7, consistent with collapsing star-forming regions. Conclusions. Finding no clear correlations between the present-day large-scale density structure, the magnetic field strength, and the smaller-scale fragmentation properties of the regions, indicates that the fragmentation of high-mass star-forming regions may not be affected strongly by the initial density profiles and magnetic field properties. However, considering the limited evolutionary range and spatial scales of the presented CORE analysis, future research directions should include density structure analysis of younger regions that better resemble the initial conditions, as well as connecting the observed intermediate-scale magnetic field structure with the larger-scale magnetic fields of the parental molecular clouds. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. Most massive stars are located in multiple stellar systems. The modeling of disk fragmentation, a mechanism that may plausibly lead to stellar multiplicity, relies on parallel 3D simulation codes whose agreement remains to be evaluated. Aims. Cartesian adaptive-mesh refinement (AMR) and spherical codes have frequently been used in the past decade to study massive star formation. We aim to study how the details of collapse and disk fragmentation depend on these codes. Methods. Using the Cartesian AMR code RAMSES within its self-gravity radiation-hydrodynamical framework, we compared disk fragmentation in a centrally condensed protostellar system to the findings of earlier studies performed on a grid in spherical coordinates using PLUTO. Results. To perform the code comparison, two RAMSES runs were considered, effectively giving qualitatively distinct pictures. On the one hand, when allowing for unlimited sink particle creation with no initial sink, Toomre instability and subsequent gas fragmentation leads to a multiple stellar system whose multiplicity is affected by the grid when triggering fragmentation and via numerically assisted mergers. On the other hand, using a unique, central, fixed-sink particle, a centrally-condensed system forms that is similar to that reported by PLUTO. Hence, the RAMSES-PLUTO comparison was performed with the latter and an agreement between the two codes is found as to the first rotationally supported disk formation, the presence of an accretion shock onto it, and the first fragmentation phase. Gaseous fragments form. The properties of the fragments (i.e., number, mass, and temperature) are dictated by local thermodynamics and are in agreement between the two codes given that the system has entered a highly nonlinear phase. Over the simulations, the stellar accretion rate is made of accretion bursts and continuous accretion on the same order of magnitude. As a minor difference between both codes, the dynamics of the fragments causes the disk structure to be sub-Keplerian in RAMSES, whereas it is found to be Keplerian, thus reaching quiescence, in PLUTO. We attribute this discrepancy to the central star being twice less massive in RAMSES because of the different stellar accretion subgrid models in use - rather than the potential grid effects. Conclusions. In a centrally condensed system, the agreement between RAMSES and PLUTO regarding many of the collapse properties and fragmentation process is good. In contrast, fragmentation occurring in the innermost region and given specific numerical choices (use of sink particles, grid, etc.) have a crucial impact when similar but smooth initial conditions are employed. These aspects prove more crucial than the choice of code, with regard to the system being multiple or centrally condensed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. There is growing evidence that massive stars grow by disk accretion in a similar way to their low-mass counterparts. Early in evolution, these disks can achieve masses that are comparable to the current stellar mass, and therefore the forming disks are highly susceptible to gravitational fragmentation. Aims. We investigate the formation and early evolution of an accretion disk around a forming massive protostar, focussing on its fragmentation physics. To this end, we follow the collapse of a molecular cloud of gas and dust, the formation of a massive protostar, the formation of its circumstellar disk, and the formation and evolution of the disk fragments. Methods. We used a grid-based, self-gravity radiation hydrodynamics code including a sub-grid module for stellar evolution and dust evolution. We purposely do not use a sub-grid module for fragmentation such as sink particles to allow for all paths of fragment formation and destruction, but instead we keep the spatial grid resolution high enough to properly resolve the physical length scales of the problem, namely the pressure scale height and Jeans length of the disk. Simulations are performed on a grid in spherical coordinates with a logarithmic spacing of the grid cells in the radial direction and a cosine distribution of the grid cells in the polar direction, focusing the spatial resolution on the disk midplane. As a consequence, roughly 25% of the total number of grid cells, corresponding to ~26 million grid cells, are used to model the disk physics. These constitute the highest resolution simulations performed up to now on disk fragmentation around a forming massive star with the physics considered here. For a better understanding of the effects of spatial resolution and to compare our high-resolution results with previous lower resolution studies in the literature, we perform the same simulation at five different resolutions, each run differing in resolution from its predecessor by a factor of two. Results. The cloud collapses and a massive (proto)star is formed in its center surrounded by a fragmenting Keplerian-like accretion disk with spiral arms. The fragments have masses of ~1 M⊙, and their continuous interactions with the disk, spiral arms, and other fragments result in eccentric orbits. Fragments form hydrostatic cores surrounded by secondary disks with spiral arms that also produce new fragments. We identified several mechanisms of fragment formation, interaction, and destruction. Central temperatures of the fragments can reach the hydrogen dissociation limit, form second Larson cores, and evolve into companion stars. Based on this, we study the multiplicity predicted by the simulations and find approximately six companions at different distances from the primary: from possible spectroscopic multiples, to companions at distances between 1000 and 2000 au. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Aims. In order to understand the observed molecular diversity in high-mass star-forming regions, we have to determine the underlying physical and chemical structure of those regions at high angular resolution and over a range of evolutionary stages. Methods. We present a detailed observational and modeling study of the hot core VLA 3 in the high-mass star-forming region AFGL 2591, which is a target region of the NOrthern Extended Millimeter Array (NOEMA) large program CORE. Using NOEMA observations at 1.37 mm with an angular resolution of ~0″. 42 (1400 au at 3.33 kpc), we derived the physical and chemical structure of the source. We modeled the observed molecular abundances with the chemical evolution code MUSCLE (MUlti Stage ChemicaL codE). Results. With the kinetic temperature tracers CH3CN and H2CO we observe a temperature distribution with a power-law index of q = 0.41 ± 0.08. Using the visibilities of the continuum emission we derive a density structure with a power-law index of p = 1.7 ± 0.1. The hot core spectra reveal high molecular abundances and a rich diversity in complex molecules. The majority of the molecules have an asymmetric spatial distribution around the forming protostar(s), which indicates a complex physical structure on scales <1400 au. Using MUSCLE, we are able to explain the observed molecular abundance of 10 out of 14 modeled species at an estimated hot core chemical age of ~21 100 yr. In contrast to the observational analysis, our chemical modeling predicts a lower density power-law index of p < 1.4. Reasons for this discrepancy are discussed. Conclusions. Combining high spatial resolution observations with detailed chemical modeling allows us to derive a concise picture of the physical and chemical structure of the famous AFGL 2591 hot core. The next steps are to conduct a similar analysis for the whole CORE sample, and then use this analysis to constrain the chemical diversity in high-mass star formation to a much greater depth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We present the highest angular resolution (∼20 × 15 mas–44 × 33 au) Atacama Large Millimeter/sub-millimeter Array (ALMA) observations that are currently possible of the proto-O-star G17.64+0.16 in Band 6. The Cycle 5 observations with baselines out to 16 km probe scales < 50 au and reveal the rotating disc around G17.64+0.16, a massive forming O-type star. The disc has a ring-like enhancement in the dust emission that is especially visible as arc structures to the north and south. The Keplerian kinematics are most prominently seen in the vibrationally excited water line, H2O 55, 0−64, 3 ν2 = 1 (Eu = 3461.9 K). The mass of the central source found by modelling the Keplerian rotation is consistent with 45 ± 10 M⊙. The H30α (231.9 GHz) radio-recombination line and the SiO (5-4) molecular line were detected at up to the ∼10σ level. The estimated disc mass is 0.6 − 2.6 M⊙ under the optically thin assumption. Analysis of the Toomre Q parameter in the optically thin regime indicates that the disc stability is highly dependent on temperature. The disc currently appears stable for temperatures > 150 K; this does not preclude that the substructures formed earlier through disc fragmentation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. The hierarchical process of star formation has so far mostly been studied on scales from thousands of au to parsecs, but the smaller sub-1000 au scales of high-mass star formation are still largely unexplored in the submillimeter regime. Aims. We aim to resolve the dust and gas emission at the highest spatial resolution to study the physical properties of the densest structures during high-mass star formation. Methods. We observed the high-mass hot core region G351.77-0.54 with the Atacama Large Millimeter Array with baselines extending out to more than 16 km. This allowed us to dissect the region at sub-50 au spatial scales. Results. At a spatial resolution of 18/40 au (depending on the distance), we identify twelve sub-structures within the inner few thousand au of the region. The brightness temperatures are high, reaching values greater 1000 K, signposting high optical depth toward the peak positions. Core separations vary between sub-100 au to several 100 and 1000 au. The core separations and approximate masses are largely consistent with thermal Jeans fragmentation of a dense gas core. Due to the high continuum optical depth, most spectral lines are seen in absorption. However, a few exceptional emission lines are found that most likely stem from transitions with excitation conditions above 1000 K. Toward the main continuum source, these emission lines exhibit a velocity gradient across scales of 100–200 au aligned with the molecular outflow and perpendicular to the previously inferred disk orientation. While we cannot exclude that these observational features stem from an inner hot accretion disk, the alignment with the outflow rather suggests that it stems from the inner jet and outflow region. The highest-velocity features are found toward the peak position, and no Hubble-like velocity structure can be identified. Therefore, these data are consistent with steady-state turbulent entrainment of the hot molecular gas via Kelvin–Helmholtz instabilities at the interface between the jet and the outflow. Conclusions. Resolving this high-mass star-forming region at sub-50 au scales indicates that the hierarchical fragmentation process in the framework of thermal Jeans fragmentation can continue down to the smallest accessible spatial scales. Velocity gradients on these small scales have to be treated cautiously and do not necessarily stem from disks, but may be better explained with outflow emission. Studying these small scales is very powerful, but covering all spatial scales and deriving a global picture from large to small scales are the next steps to investigate. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context. High-mass stars form in clusters, but neither the early fragmentation processes nor the detailed physical processes leading to the most massive stars are well understood. Aims. We aim to understand the fragmentation, as well as the disk formation, outflow generation, and chemical processes during high-mass star formation on spatial scales of individual cores. Methods. Using the IRAM Northern Extended Millimeter Array (NOEMA) in combination with the 30 m telescope, we have observed in the IRAM large program CORE the 1.37 mm continuum and spectral line emission at high angular resolution (~0.4″) for a sample of 20 well-known high-mass star-forming regions with distances below 5.5 kpc and luminosities larger than 104L⊙. Results. We present the overall survey scope, the selected sample, the observational setup, and the main goals of CORE. Scientifically, we concentrated on the mm continuum emission on scales on the order of 1000 AU. We detect strong mm continuum emission from all regions, mostly due to the emission from cold dust. The fragmentation properties of the sample are diverse. We see extremes where some regions are dominated by a single high-mass core whereas others fragment into as many as 20 cores. A minimum-spanning-tree analysis finds fragmentation at scales on the order of the thermal Jeans length or smaller suggesting that turbulent fragmentation is less important than thermal gravitational fragmentation. The diversity of highly fragmented vs. singular regions can be explained by varying initial density structures and/or different initial magnetic field strengths. Conclusions. A large sample of high-mass star-forming regions at high spatial resolution allows us to study the fragmentation properties of young cluster-forming regions. The smallest observed separations between cores are found around the angular resolution limit which indicates that further fragmentation likely takes place on even smaller spatial scales. The CORE project with its numerous spectral line detections will address a diverse set of important physical and chemical questions in the field of high-mass star formation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The surroundings of massive protostars constitute an accretion disc which has numerically been shown to be subject to fragmentation and responsible for luminous accretion-driven outbursts. Moreover, it is suspected to produce close binary companions which will later strongly influence the star's future evolution in the Hertzsprung-Russel diagram. We present three-dimensional gravitation-radiation-hydrodynamic numerical simulations of 100M⊙ prestellar cores. We find that accretion discs of young massive stars violently fragment without preventing the (highly variable) accretion of gaseous clumps on to the protostars. While acquiring the characteristics of a nascent low-mass companion, some disc fragments migrate on to the central massive protostar with dynamical properties showing that its final Keplerian orbit is close enough to constitute a close massive protobinary system, having a young highand a low-mass components. We conclude on the viability of the disc fragmentation channel for the formation of such short-period binaries, and that both processes - close massive binary formation and accretion bursts - may happen at the same time. FU-Orionis-type bursts, such as observed in the young high-mass star S255IR-NIRS3, may not only indicate ongoing disc fragmentation, but also be considered as a tracer for the formation of close massive binaries - progenitors of the subsequent massive spectroscopic binaries - once the high-mass component of the system will enter the main-sequence phase of its evolution. Finally, we investigate the Atacama Large (sub-)Millimeter Array observability of the disc fragments. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accretion-driven luminosity outbursts are a vivid manifestation of variable mass accretion on to protostars. They are known as the so-called FU Orionis phenomenon in the context of low-mass protostars. More recently, this process has been found in models of primordial star formation. Using numerical radiation hydrodynamics simulations, we stress that present- day forming massive stars also experience variable accretion and show that this process is accompanied by luminous outbursts induced by the episodic accretion of gaseous clumps falling from the circumstellar disc on to the protostar. Consequently, the process of accretion-induced luminous flares is also conceivable in the high-mass regime of star formation and we propose to regard this phenomenon as a general mechanism that can affect protostars regardless of their mass and/or the chemical properties of the parent environment in which they form. In addition to the commonness of accretion-driven outbursts in the star formation machinery, we conjecture that luminous flares from regions hosting forming high-mass stars may be an observational implication of the fragmentation of their accretion discs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]