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We examine whether one of the most popular observation systems in teacher evaluation--the Framework for Teaching (FFT)--captures the range of instructional skills teachers need to be effective. We focus on the case of special educators, who are likely to use instructional approaches that, although supported by research, are de-emphasized in common observation systems. Drawing on 206 lessons from 51 teachers, we compare FFT scores to an observation system from special education. We find that FFT's psychometric properties are consistent with previous studies, but the system is limited in assessing the quality of instructional practices used in special education. We discuss implications of these findings for two practical uses of observations--supporting teacher development and informing human capital decisions.

Two professional development (PD) models for teachers were compared on teacher and student outcomes. Special education teachers participated in Literacy Learning Cohorts (LLC), a PD innovation designed to improve content and pedagogical knowledge for providing reading instruction to upper elementary students with learning disabilities. The LLC, based on Desimone's (2009) framework, included 2 days of initial PD with follow-up meetings, coaching, and video self-analysis. A comparison group received only 2 days of PD. Results of independent t tests and analyses of covariance indicated that LLC teachers demonstrated significant change in instructional time allotted to, and quality of, word study and fluency instruction. LLC teachers also made significantly greater gains on the fluency knowledge measure as compared with the comparison group, but they did not differ in word study knowledge. Hierarchical linear modeling analyses showed that students of LLC teachers made significantly greater gains on word attack skills and decoding efficiency than did students of teachers in the comparison group.

Advancing teacher candidates' overall competence through use of valid teacher observation systems should be an essential element of teacher preparation. Yet, the field of special education has not provided observation protocols designed specifically for preservice teachers that are founded in theoretical perspectives and research on effective instruction for students with learning and other high-incidence disabilities (SWDs). To address this need, a group of researchers in special education teacher preparation and measurement developed the Preservice Observation Instrument for Special Education (POISE). The POISE is an observation system rooted in effective special education practices that support the growth of preservice teachers who will serve SWD across instructional settings. The purpose of this article is to report on the development and psychometric properties of the POISE. Specifically, we employed Kane's argument-based validity approach to frame each stage in the development process of the POISE. We conducted two phases of content validation activities, development activities, and a pilot study to assess the degree to which scores from POISE provided evidence for the scoring, generalizability, and extrapolation inferences. In the end, the POISE represents a promising observation instrument for the development of special education teacher candidates.

The purpose of this study was to explore the relationships among (1) special education teachers' knowledge for teaching reading fluency, (2) the specific instructional practices they used in fluency instruction, and (3) gains of students with specific learning disabilities (SLD) on a performance measure of oral reading fluency (ORF). Analyses based on multilevel linear modeling and analysis of covariance indicated that for 42 special education teachers teaching third, fourth, and fifth graders with SLD in intensive reading groups, teachers' knowledge for teaching reading fluency predicted student gains on ORF measures, but did not predict their instructional practice. Furthermore, teacher practice did not predict student gains on ORF. Practical implications and future research are discussed.

Improving educational outcomes for students with disabilities and others who struggle in school largely depends on teachers who can deliver effective instruction. Although many effective practices have been identified to address the academic and behavioral needs of students who struggle in school, including those with disabilities, these practices are not used extensively in classrooms. This article provides a rationale for and description of major changes that are occurring in teacher preparation programs that are designed to improve the practice of beginning teachers. This is followed by a description of a set of high-leverage practices that was recently approved by the Council for Exceptional Children. These practices represent an initial attempt to delineate a core curriculum for special education teacher preparation to support the changes that are occurring in teacher education.

This article provides a framework and description of pedagogies that may be used in teacher preparation across a range of settings from college classrooms to P-12 settings to support teacher candidates as they learn to use high-leverage practices (HLPs). These "pedagogies of enactment" must include a continuum of opportunities to use teaching practices in increasingly authentic settings, ranging from video analysis, case studies, rehearsal, and virtual simulations to use of practices with coaching support in a classroom (e.g., lesson study, structured tutoring, and aligned field experiences). In this article, we use research on the development of professional expertise and from cognitive science to identify pedagogies from the teacher education research base that have promise for promoting candidates' learning and describe how these pedagogies might be scaffolded over the duration of a teacher education program to promote learning.

In this article, the authors provide a response to the special issue on "The Science of Teacher Professional Development: Iterative Design Studies Across Content Areas." In doing so, they present the framework of professional development (PD) enactment developed by Mary Kennedy and apply it to the three studies highlighted in this special issue. They also present implications regarding the advancement of coherent theories of change within special education teacher education research.

Teacher shortages in special education have been a source of long-standing concern for professionals and parents involved in the education of students with disabilities. Because of their geographic location, culture, and lack of resources, rural administrators have always struggled to staff their schools with qualified special education teachers. No Child Left Behind and its definition of highly qualified teachers present new challenges to rural district administrators attempting to secure adequate numbers of special education teachers. In this article, we outline the challenges rural administrators face in reducing special education teacher shortages, present strategies being used nationally and regionally to reduce strategies, and critique those strategies. We conclude our article by advocating for a more comprehensive approach to solving teacher supply and demand problems, one that is driven by personnel data.

In this commentary, we revisit "NCLB and the Demand for Highly Qualified Teachers: Challenges and Solutions for Rural Schools," an article we published in this journal in 2005. We consider the predictions we made then about the impact of the Highly Qualified Teacher mandate on special education teacher (SET) shortages in rural states and regions, acknowledging that we overlooked the diversity of rural areas and their differentiated needs in our original article. We then update strategies and programs for preparing, recruiting, and retaining SETs in rural schools and discuss the implications of the Every Student Succeeds Act, which has replaced the No Child Left Behind Act, for special education in rural areas. We note with optimism the resilience that rural areas have exhibited in the face of teacher shortages and see hope in recent technology applications and other context-based strategies.

Although the ultimate goal of teacher education is to provide an adequate supply of highly qualified teachers for the nation's schools, many factors hinder its success. In special education, too few people enter the field, and a policy context that promotes easy entry via unconventional preparation threatens to dilute teacher quality. In this challenging and complex context, teacher educators struggle to improve their work and to assess innovations credibly. In this paper, the authors describe the particular position of the special education teacher education community as it attempts to provide a qualified teacher for every special education student. The authors begin by describing the Center on Personnel Studies in Special Education (University of Florida, Gainesville) and the process that led to the development of a research agenda. They also provide an overview of four studies underway and how they provide insight about assessing innovations. In the last section, the authors discuss what they have learned thus far.

Policy and program decisions involve choices among different ways of preparing teachers. These choices are shrouded in increasingly contentious debates as teacher shortages reach crisis proportions. Yet, research on special education teacher education is almost nonexistent. Findings from comparative research documenting the characteristics of effective teacher education programs can inform these choices, but these findings should be grounded in what we know from previous research in general teacher education. To assist educators, we have analyzed literature in general and special teacher education toward two ends. First, we present a framework, derived from work in general education, for analyzing teacher education programs. Second, we use this framework to analyze practice in teacher education in special education. Specifically, we conducted an exhaustive review of special education program descriptions and evaluations. We conclude by describing steps necessary to improve the special education teacher education research base.

In the authors' response to the other articles in this special series, they acknowledge the dilemma that chronic teacher shortages and recent demands for a quality teacher for every child pose for securing sufficient numbers of special educators. We provide information about current policies and programs that states and districts are implementing that hold promise for improving the supply of qualified special educators. Although we recognize the potential effectiveness of individual strategies, such as induction programs, we emphasize the importance of a comprehensive, statewide reform effort as the most viable mechanism for resolving teacher shortages.

Novice special educators (those in their first 3 years) consistently report their workloads are unmanageable. Yet, it is not clear whether their perceptions of workload manageability contribute to outcomes of concern such as emotional exhaustion (a component of burnout) or intentions to continue teaching in their schools and districts. This pilot investigation used structural equation modeling to analyze data collected for the Michigan Indiana Early Career Teacher Study. We found (a) novice elementary and middle school special educators rated their workloads less manageable than novice elementary and middle school general educators; (b) novice special and general educators' ratings of workload manageability predicted emotional exhaustion, which mediated a relationship between workload manageability and career intentions; and (c) the magnitude of the relationships was stronger for novice general educators. Results have implications for supporting and retaining novice special and general education teachers.

Students with disabilities (SWDs) depend upon special education teachers (SETs) to provide effective instruction. SETs, in turn, depend upon school leaders to provide conditions necessary to learn and engage in effective instructional practices for students with the most significant learning needs. A promising body of research indicates that working conditions such as administrative support and school culture influence general educators' effectiveness and their students' achievement. This literature review examines research investigating relationships between SETs' working conditions and instructional quality and SWDs' academic achievement, to provide insights into how working conditions might be leveraged to improve SETs' instruction and SWDs' achievement.

The purpose of this study is to understand special education teachers' beliefs regarding their roles and responsibilities and to determine how these beliefs differ among more and less accomplished teachers. In this study, the authors examine the interviews of special education teachers identified as either more or less accomplished based on the Reading in Special Education (RISE) observation instrument. Through qualitative coding of the data, several themes about beliefs revealed differences between the teachers. The more accomplished teachers discussed a need for instructional intensity and linked their roles and responsibilities to academic needs. Furthermore, a sense of high efficacy was seen in more accomplished teachers' discussion of teaching regardless of outside influences. Less accomplished teachers focused on building relationships and protecting their students. Findings point to the importance of looking closely at beliefs and their impact on teacher practice.

The authors consider the future of special education personnel preparation by responding to an overarching question: "What frameworks might teacher educators use as a basis to promote special education teacher effective performance now and in the future?" In answering this question, they summarize current trends in the context of schooling and special education (i.e., Common Core State Standards [CCSS], multi-tiered systems of support [MTSS]) and what these contexts demand of special education teachers. The authors propose a practice-based model for fostering effective special education teacher performance. Grounded in the science of learning, the model includes approaches in teacher education that align with this literature. Implications for implementing the model are provided, which recognize current constraints on schools and colleges of education, to better promote this model for fostering effective performance.

Over a relatively short period of time, states and districts across the country have embraced reform surrounding teacher evaluation and compensation. Public concern over teacher evaluations, combined with federal initiatives designed to support teacher evaluation reform, led many states to adopt more comprehensive evaluation systems that draw on multiple sources of information. In special education, there is not a complement of research to inform teacher evaluation practices. States and districts across the nation are applying assessment approaches validated in general education to special education teachers with little research-based guidance (Holdheide, 2013), and they are doing so despite commentary from special education researchers that these practices may not be feasible or appropriate for special educators (Benedict, Thomas, Kimerling, & Leko, 2013; Johnson & Semmelroth, 2014; Jones, Buzick, & Turkan, 2013). The purpose of this paper is to explore the most well-researched and used evaluation methods and discuss implications of applying those methods in special education teacher evaluation.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the discourse patterns characterizing individual special education teachers as they participated in a collaborative professional development (PD) group, and how these individual discourse patterns influenced other group members' opportunities to learn about reading instruction for upper elementary students with disabilities. Videotaped cohort meetings and associated artifact data were collected during a 2-year period and analyzed using Gee's (2005) methods of discourse analysis. Findings indicate that teachers' individual discourse varied along the two dimensions: "knowledge" (integrated, implementation, and low) and "inquiry" (high and low). Teachers whose discourse conveyed both integrated knowledge and a proclivity for inquiry provided other group members with the most sophisticated learning opportunities related to PD content. Additional implications for future research and practice regarding collaborative learning groups as a method of PD are provided.

A primary focus of recent educational policymaking has been on improving measures of teaching effectiveness, attributable in part to recent federal policies such as the Race to the Top initiative and Investing in Innovation. To date, neither researchers nor practitioners have arrived at a consensus on the best methods for evaluating special educators. While value-added scores are likely not suitable for the majority of special education teachers, observation systems appear to be more promising because they can be used across a variety of instructional settings and formats. To illustrate the steps that would be necessary to validate observation systems for use with special educators, we examine the observation system being most commonly used in school districts--Charlotte Danielson's Framework for Teaching (FFT). Drawing on empirical research, we propose a definition of effective special education teaching, and we then use this definition to frame our investigation into FFT. We conclude with a series of recommendations for research that would establish the validity of using FFT to evaluate special educators. We also describe how the challenges specific to FFT would generalize to other observation systems.

Becoming an expert special educator is no easy task! Even if you have mastered the basic expectations for your job, those expectations are continually evolving, becoming increasingly complex and rigorous. Unfortunately, your efforts to develop the knowledge and skill to effectively meet these expectations and serve students with disabilities are probably not supported by the kinds of meaningful professional learning experiences that you need to grow. Fortunately, you do not have to rely on others to provide you with the knowledge and skills that you need to develop your capacity to effectively teach students with disabilities; you can take charge of your own professional learning. The purpose of this article is to support you in cultivating your own expertise. We first describe the context in which special educators are working, with increasingly complex demands and insufficient professional development opportunities. Next, we outline the knowledge, skills, and dispositions of effective special educators. Finally, we draw from research on the development of professional expertise to provide specific tips for taking charge of your own professional learning.

Partnerships between local education agencies (LEAs) and institutions of higher education (IHEs) allow individual organizations to leverage their assets as well as expand and enhance their own knowledge bases. Two of the more prominent types of LEA-IHE partnerships in special education are Alternative Route to Certification programs and Professional Development Schools. In addition to a collaborative infrastructure, both partnership types described converge in a few key areas: addressing teacher shortages, innovative program design, shared responsibilities, and resources and contextual supports. These two partnerships can yield promising outcomes, but require the same amount of intensive, time-consuming work regardless of their different goals. To optimize LEA-IHE engagement, leaders should: build trusting relationships, develop a common vision, define and restructure roles and responsibilities, develop novel curricula, and establish shared governance structures. (Contains 1 table.)

This study examined various influences on special education preservice teachers' appropriation of pedagogical tools for teaching reading to students with high-incidence disabilities using an activity theory framework. Interview, observation, and artifact data were collected on 6 preservice teachers, their reading methods course instructors, field supervisors, and practicum cooperating teachers. Using grounded theory methods, 4 concepts emerged as chief influences on participants' appropriation of conceptual and practical reading tools: (a) opportunities to appropriate knowledge in practice, (b) personal qualities, (c) motivation for knowledge assimilation, and (d) access to knowledge. Specific information related to these 4 concepts and their relationships are reported with implications for future research and practice in special education teacher education. (Contains 3 tables and 1 figure.)

This study examined the impact of contextual and individual factors on the implementation of professional development (PD) content in the area of word study and fluency by three upper-elementary special education teachers. The PD effort included an initial PD institute, monthly cohort meetings, an online community forum, coaching, and opportunities for self-reflection. Interview data, observation field notes and ratings, meeting transcripts, and knowledge surveys were collected and analyzed. Using case study and cross-case analysis, three interrelated themes emerged that differentiated participating teachers' ability to effectively integrate the PD content into their classroom instruction: (a) content reading knowledge and pedagogical skills, (b) motivation to participate in the PD and to change instructional practice, and (c) individual teachers' willingness to enhance or modify the curriculum used in the classroom. Information related to these themes and their interrelationships is reported along with the implications for future research and practice in PD for special educators. (Contains 2 tables and 1 figure.)

In this article, the authors propose an agenda for special education teacher education researchers, with particular attention to policy work and studies of innovations in pre-service preparation, induction and mentoring, and professional development. Because previous research is limited and unfocused, the foundation for future research is weak, but opportunities to study questions of importance and interest are seemingly limitless. The authors discuss strategies to bolster the research foundation, namely, by oversampling special education teachers in the Schools and Staffing Survey and the Teacher Follow-Up Survey and by fostering the development of models of teacher development and related measures of teacher quality.

The authors trace changes in conceptions of special education teacher quality and preparation in response to developments in special education research, policy, and practice. This developmental arc is a backdrop for understanding contemporary special education practice and charting future directions for preparing special education teachers. Federal policy, and recent research on teaching and learning, and the response-to-intervention (RTI) movement require a shift in thinking about how to prepare quality special education teachers and the expertise they need to be effective. To function effectively in RTI and fulfill federal highly qualified teacher requirements, special education teachers must master an increasingly comp lex knowledge base and sophisticated repertoire of instructional practices. The authors contend that preservice preparation is inadequate for this purpose and that preparation for special education teaching should build up on an existing knowledge base and demonstrated competence in classroom practice.

In this study, we conducted 124 observations of 41 special education teachers teaching reading to their third- through fifth-grade students with learning disabilities to determine the extent to which and in what ways they promoted students' reading comprehension. In 42 lessons, we did not observe any comprehension instruction. In 30 lessons, the only comprehension-related activity consisted of asking students questions about what they had read by means of mostly factual, rote-level questions. In 49 lessons, teachers provided additional comprehension instruction, although this mostly consisted of prompting students to use a strategy rather than providing explicit instruction. Predicting was the most common strategy observed. We rarely saw teachers use more complex strategies, such as finding the main idea or summarizing. Most special education teachers seemed unsure of how to promote their students' reading comprehension. We noted many missed opportunities to do so. Our findings suggest implications for researchers and teacher preparation programs. (Contains 2 footnotes, 2 tables, and 1 figure.)

Little research exists to help us understand why some beginning special education teachers of reading engage in more effective classroom practices than others. Factors that may influence these differences include personal attributes, preparation, and school environment. This mixed-methods study examined beginning special education teachers (N = 25) who taught reading to elementary students. Teachers were identified as most accomplished, moderately accomplished, and least accomplished, as defined by an overall classroom practice score. Interviews, observational field notes, and survey data on preparation and work environment revealed that the most accomplished beginners were consistently reflective, resourceful, and relentless and used these attributes to improve instruction, whereas others varied in this regard. Furthermore, while adequately prepared in special education, beginners reported inadequate preparation in reading. The interplay of personal attributes, preparation, and school environment seems to be a powerful determinant of a teacher's level of accomplishment. (Contains 1 table.)

Bill and Karen are special education teachers who have entirely different knowledge and skill profiles. Bill is a special educator with 20 years of experience. He teaches reading to third-, fourth-, and fifth-grade students in a high-poverty elementary school resource classroom. His school is currently engaging in a schoolwide Reading First effort to improve the inclusion of students with disabilities. Although Bill is a competent special education teacher, his long-standing reliance on a scripted research-based reading curriculum for students with learning disabilities left him with a limited framework for understanding reading instruction. Bill is learning strategies in an attempt to remediate decoding deficits that his students are experiencing despite their participation in an evidence-based curriculum. However, he is having difficulty incorporating those strategies because of his insufficient knowledge about teaching reading and the overly prescriptive nature of his curriculum. Karen is a brand-new special education teacher who is responsible for teaching math in a secondary resource classroom and co-teaching with general education teachers to provide social studies and science instruction. Karen entered the field with a Bachelor's degree in Mathematics and participated in a 2-week alternative route (AR) program to prepare her for teaching special education. The possibilities of her new job please Karen, but she realizes that she knows little about teaching mathematics to students with disabilities and little about teaching social studies and science. Karen's AR program emphasized general principles of teaching and learning but provided limited information about the specific learning needs of students with disabilities and how to address them in the content areas. The structured, evidence-based curriculum that Karen uses to teach mathematics helps a little; but she worries that her students are failing to learn key concepts and to apply their knowledge to word problems. To make matters worse, Karen only sees her students for a maximum of 45 minutes a day, and she is having difficulty providing intensive instruction when she has so much to cover and so little time. The authors have worked with many teachers who resemble Karen and Bill who desperately want (and need) to improve their practice for students with disabilities, but they often believe that schoolwide professional development (PD) efforts have failed to meet their specific needs. This article draws on current research and the authors' own PD work with teachers like Karen and Bill to obtain insights into the necessary considerations for crafting quality PD for special education teachers.

This study explored beginning special education teacher quality and the role that knowledge and skill for teaching reading plays in defining quality. The authors examined the relationship between beginning teachers' knowledge for teaching reading and their classroom practices during reading instruction and, further, relationships between classroom practices and student achievement gains on various reading measures. Findings revealed special education beginning teachers were somewhat knowledgeable about teaching reading, but this knowledge did not contribute a significant portion of variance to classroom practice. Practices in classroom management, decoding practices, and providing explicit, engaging instruction accounted for a significant portion of variance in student reading gains. Implications for further research and the preparation and induction of beginning teachers are provided. (Contains 8 tables.)

Researchers conducted a study that examined the classroom reading practices of beginning special education teachers and each teacher's ability to promote student engagement. The researchers observed 14 beginning special education teachers over a 6-month period and identified the teachers as most engaging, highly engaging, moderately engaging, or low engaging. Through qualitative data analysis, researchers identified 4 themes related to instructional engagement that differentiated the teachers: instructional quality, responsiveness to student needs, socioemotional climate of the classroom, and student autonomy. Although the most engaging and highly engaging teachers were relatively consistent in demonstrating these themes, most other teachers were not. This article discusses these findings in light of previous research on beginning teachers and makes suggestions for additional research. (Contains 3 tables.)

In this interview with Drs. Nancy Waldron and James McLeskey, they discuss creating school environments in which all learners are successful, helping teachers plan for differentiated instruction, effective grouping arrangements, and the role of principals, special educators, and school psychologists in helping schools become inclusive. (Contains four references.) (CR)

A survey of 1,576 Florida special-education teachers examined factors that contribute to their propensity to leave or stay in the special education classroom or transfer to a new school. Teachers left special education teaching primarily due to insufficient certification, perceptions of high stress, and perceptions of poor school climate. (Author/CR)

A survey of 172 teachers of students with emotional/behavioral disorders found that 71% reported they currently use level systems for behavioral management. Analysis notes similarities and differences between level system users and nonusers, characteristics common to level systems, and inconsistencies in perceptions of effectiveness and satisfaction. (Author/DB)

A national mail survey of 276 preschool teachers employed in programs accredited by the National Association for the Education of Young Children found that more than half of respondents currently had a child with disabilities in their classroom and most were not working with a special educator. (Author/CR)

Reflects on the findings of a survey (reported in an earlier article in this issue) of 93 teachers who left their special education teaching positions. How the data was collected is discussed as well as the factors for leaving, including lack of administrative support, significant student discipline problems, high case load, excessive paperwork, and insufficient preparation. (CR)

A telephone survey of 93 Florida teachers who did not return to their special education teaching position after the 1992-93 year, found the largest portion of teachers who left did so because they were dissatisfied with conditions of work. In addition, the majority of leavers remained in education. (Author/CR)

Variables related to special education teacher attrition were examined by qualitative interviews with 14 current and 10 former special education teachers. Analysis indicated that stayers were more committed to teaching students with disabilities, had a higher sense of efficacy, felt more prepared by their preservice and initial teaching experiences, and exhibited more effective coping strategies. (Author/DB)

This article offers a conceptual model for studying teacher attrition and retention. The model incorporates historical, environmental, and external factors believed to influence teachers' decisions about whether to continue teaching. The framework is used to draw implications for future special education teacher preparation research. (Author/DB)