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Research has shown that spatial ability plays a key role in understanding STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) content, including chemistry. Conservation of Matter (CoM) is an essential but challenging topic for chemistry students of all ages to grasp; it is often taught in a way where students memorize it but do not learn what it means conceptually. This research explored the relationship between understanding spatial ability and conceptual understanding of CoM in middle school students. CoM was examined in two ways using the Conservation of Matter Assessment (CoMA): through questions on conservation of atoms and the conservation of mass. Spatial ability was measured using the Purdue Spatial Visual Test: Rotations (PSVT). Significant, moderate correlations were found between spatial ability and understanding of CoM prior to and after a chemistry unit including instruction on CoM; the correlation was stronger after instruction. Scores on the PSVT and CoMA significantly increased pre to post instruction. The data show spatial ability may impact students' understanding of CoM, which contributes to the literature on factors that impact students' understanding of chemistry. Additionally, it provides evidence that teachers should consider including spatially rich experiences in their chemistry classroom, such as making explicit connections between the areas of Johnstone's Triad.

This research with middle school students from Kentucky (KY) and Nevada (NV) provides a snapshot of students' spatial-scientific understandings as we explored how well students understand lunar-related content, both spatially and scientifically, after receiving instruction with similar curricular Earth-Space content. Utilizing a lens of spatial reasoning ability, we further compared the ways middle level grade (sixth vs. eighth) factored into how well students comprehend the complexities of the Earth/Moon/Sun system and the cause of lunar phases. NV teaches Moon phases in eighth grade (age of 13-14) while KY teaches phases in sixth grade (age of 11-12). To be clear, we are not claiming that sixth graders and eighth graders are similar cognitively. Since phases are only taught formally once (at the middle level), we are exploring how well students understand these lunar-related, spatial-scientific concepts at the conclusion of their formal instruction. The majority of the states teach lunar phases either in sixth grade or in eighth grade; it is a state's choice. The rationale for this study is to begin the conversation regarding Does grade level matter on science content that requires spatial reasoning ability? This study will begin to shed light on this topic. The research questions specifically investigated for this study were: (1) How do sixth and eighth grade students compare in terms of their spatial ability and lunar knowledge as measured via content surveys? (2) How do sixth and eighth grade students compare in their spatial awareness and description of the Earth/Moon/Sun system as measured via clinical interviews? (3) How do quantitative and qualitative datasets compare/contrast with each other to create a complex snapshot of sixth graders versus eighth graders spatial-scientific understandings of the Moon and its phases?

Differences were examined between groups of sixth grade students? spatial-scientific development pre/post implementation of an Earth/Space unit. Treatment teachers employed a spatially-integrated Earth/Space curriculum, while control teachers implemented their Business as Usual (BAU) Earth/Space units. A multi-level modeling approach was used in a hierarchical manner to evaluate student performance on the Purdue Spatial Visualization: Rotation test (PSVT-Rot) and on the Lunar Phases Concept Inventory (which included four spatial domains), while controlling for two variables (gender and race/ethnicity) at the student level and one variable (teaching experience) at the teacher level. Results showed Treatment girls achieved higher LPCI Periodic Patterns (PP) spatial domain post-scores than girls in the BAU group. A gender gap was also observed (in favor of boys) within the BAU group for PP domain post-scores, while no gap was shown within the Treatment group. In addition, results for PP suggest Students of Color tended to have lower PP scores than White students (Effect Size = 0.29), and that higher pretest PP scores tended to lead to higher posttest PP scores, after adjusting for other student and teacher characteristics. The only statistically significant predictor of the PSVT-Rot posttest scores were scores on the respective pretest.

[This paper is part of the Focused Collection on Astronomy Education Research.] Multiple studies show that spatial thinking skills contribute to students' performance in science, technology, engineering, and mathematics disciplines. The study of astronomy is no different with the understanding of many astronomical phenomena requiring spatial thinking skills. This paper describes traditional and contemporary approaches to characterizing and measuring spatial thinking skills and suggests how they inform research in astronomy education. It summarizes previous literature in astronomy education research and categorizes the research approaches of astronomy education peer-reviewed journal articles and conference proceedings that explicitly consider the role of spatial thinking. Additionally, it recommends directions and curricular approaches for astronomy education research informed by current research in spatial thinking.

[This paper is part of the Focused Collection on Astronomy Education Research.] We examined teachers' spatial-scientific reasoning and the alternative conceptions they held regarding Earth-space content. While participating in a professional development (PD) workshop, teachers engaged in an integrated mathematics and science project-based unit designed to foster spatial reasoning and improve lunar-related conceptual understanding. The Purdue Spatial Visualization Test-Rotation (PSVT-Rot) and the Lunar Phases Concept Inventory (LPCI) were used to assess understanding. We found the teachers held similar alternative conceptions as their students. Moreover, we discovered that teachers had limited understanding of the Earth-Moon-Sun scale, motions, and geometric configurations. To determine how teachers' spatial-scientific confidence and ability translated to their classroom practice, we videotaped and analyzed instruction conducted by 6 teachers on an Earth-space lesson. Two teachers with the highest spatial-scientific confidence and ability had students achieving significant learning outcomes on both the PSVT-Rot and the LPCI.

This study investigated sixth-grade middle-level students' geometric spatial development by gender and race within and between control and experimental groups at two middle schools as they participated in an Earth/Space unit. The control group utilized a regular Earth/Space curriculum and the experimental group used a National Aeronautics and Space Administration-based curriculum. The quantitative data sources included the Lunar Phases Concept Inventory, Geometric Spatial Assessment, and the Purdue Spatial Visualization-Rotation Test. The results indicated the experimental males and females, and the students of color and white students in the experimental group showed significant gains in their understanding of geometric spatial visualization from pre- to post-implementation. However, for the control group, the significant gains were limited to the males and the white students. The findings reveal that support is needed for males, females, and all racial groups to have the opportunity to develop their spatial reasoning, which in turn, increases students' scientific understanding.

Relationships between sixth grade students' moon journaling and students' spatial-scientific reasoning after implementation of an Earth/Space unit were examined. Teachers used the project-based Realistic Explorations in Astronomical Learning curriculum. We used a regression model to analyze the relationship between the students' Lunar Phases Concept Inventory (LPCI) post-test score variables and several predictors, including moon journal score, number of moon journal entries, student gender, teacher experience, and pre-test score. The model shows that students who performed better on moon journals, both in terms of overall score and number of entries, tended to score higher on the LPCI. For every 1 point increase in the overall moon journal score, participants scored 0.18 points (out of 20) or nearly 1% point higher on the LPCI post-test when holding constant the effects of the other two predictors. Similarly, students who increased their scores by 1 point in the overall moon journal score scored approximately 1% higher in the Periodic Patterns (PP) and Geometric Spatial Visualization (GSV) domains of the LPCI. Also, student gender and teacher experience were shown to be significant predictors of post-GSV scores on the LPCI in addition to the pre-test scores, overall moon journal score, and number of entries that were also significant predictors on the LPCI overall score and the PP domain. This study is unique in the purposeful link created between student moon observations and spatial skills. The use of moon journals distinguishes this study further by fostering scientific observation along with skills from across science, technology, engineering, and mathematics disciplines.

This study documented the means by which STEM (science, technology, engineering, and mathematics) educators experienced the mathematics and science associated with understanding lunar phenomena. The article reports how well STEM education graduate students interacted with projectbased materials as they engaged in interdisciplinary teaching and learning. Research questions pursued were: (a) How will students' spatial mathematics and scientific understandings develop as they engage in a contextualized, technology-rich, project-based environment? and (b) How will the students' group projects affect their understanding of lunar related concepts? A mixedmethods approach was used with this semester-long design study to expose how focused project work facilitated spatial understanding. Significant gains were made on lunar-related concepts that had been previously resistant to conceptual change (lunar motion and effect of lunar phase with location change). An implication of this study suggests that technologies (i.e., Stellarium, online blogging with Australia, and Geometer's Sketchpad) facilitated students' project progress, aided students' understanding of how perspective matters in terms of Earthly sky viewing, and deepened students' understanding on domains that included spatial reasoning.

This paper documents the development of the Geometric Spatial Assessment. We detail the development of this instrument which was designed to identify middle school students' strategies and advancement in understanding of four geometric concept domains (geometric spatial visualization, spatial projection, cardinal directions, and periodic patterns) after experiencing a carefully designed integrated lunar unit. Previous research with students using this lunar unit showed students making significant gains on lunar-related concepts (both scientific and mathematical) on a Lunar Phases Concept Inventory (LPCI) (Lindell & Olsen, 2002). Following the administration of single domain assessments, clinical interviews were conducted to ascertain students' problem solving strategies. Results allowed us to select four suitable multiple-choice items per domain. (Contains 3 tables.)

This paper reports an examination on gender differences in lunar phases understanding of 123 students (70 females and 53 males). Middle-level students interacted with the Moon through observations, sketching, journalling, two-dimensional and three-dimensional modelling, and classroom discussions. These lunar lessons were adapted from the Realistic Explorations in Astronomical Learning (REAL) curriculum. Students' conceptual understandings were measured through analysis of pre-test and post-test results on a Lunar Phases Concept Inventory (LPCI) and a Geometric Spatial Assessment (GSA). The LPCI was used to assess conceptual learning of eight science and four mathematics domains. The GSA was used to assess learning of the same four mathematical domains; however, the GSA test items were not posed within a lunar context. Results showed both male and female groups to make significant gains in understanding on the overall LPCI test scores as well as significant gains on five of the eight science domains and on three of the four mathematics domains. The males scored significantly higher than the females on the science domain, "phase--Sun/Earth/Moon positions," and on the mathematics domain "geometric spatial visualisation." GSA results found both male and female groups achieving a significant increase in their test scores on the overall GSA. Females made significant gains on the GSA mathematics domains, "periodic patterns" and "cardinal directions," while males made significant gains on only the "periodic patterns" domain. Findings suggest that both scientific and mathematical understandings can be significantly improved for both sexes through the use of spatially focused, inquiry-oriented curriculum such as REAL. (Contains 3 figures and 7 tables.)

Research indicates that student understanding is either confirmed or reformed when given opportunities to share what they know. This study was conducted to answer the research question: Will classroom dialogue facilitate students' understanding of lunar concepts related to geometric spatial visualisation? Ninety-two middle school students engaged in classroom discussion about the two-dimensional models of the Sun-Earth-Moon system they created at the end of an inquiry Moon unit. Their responses to selected questions of the Lunar Phases Concept Inventory were also analysed. Findings indicate that classroom discourse provides the optimal setting for students to deeply ponder their long-held misconceptions and reconstruct their understanding regarding the cause of lunar phases. (Contains 6 tables and 6 figures.)

This research with middle school students from Kentucky (KY) and Nevada (NV) provides a snapshot of students' spatial‐scientific understandings as we explored how well students understand lunar‐related content, both spatially and scientifically, after receiving instruction with similar curricular Earth‐Space content. Utilizing a lens of spatial reasoning ability, we further compared the ways middle level grade (sixth vs. eighth) factored into how well students comprehend the complexities of the Earth/Moon/Sun system and the cause of lunar phases. NV teaches Moon phases in eighth grade (age of 13–14) while KY teaches phases in sixth grade (age of 11–12). To be clear, we are not claiming that sixth graders and eighth graders are similar cognitively. Since phases are only taught formally once (at the middle level), we are exploring how well students understand these lunar‐related, spatial‐scientific concepts at the conclusion of their formal instruction. The majority of the states teach lunar phases either in sixth grade or in eighth grade; it is a state's choice. The rationale for this study is to begin the conversation regarding Does grade level matter on science content that requires spatial reasoning ability? This study will begin to shed light on this topic. The research questions specifically investigated for this study were: (1) How do sixth and eighth grade students compare in terms of their spatial ability and lunar knowledge as measured via content surveys? (2) How do sixth and eighth grade students compare in their spatial awareness and description of the Earth/Moon/Sun system as measured via clinical interviews? (3) How do quantitative and qualitative datasets compare/contrast with each other to create a complex snapshot of sixth graders versus eighth graders spatial‐scientific understandings of the Moon and its phases? [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Relationships between sixth grade students' moon journaling and students' spatial-scientific reasoning after implementation of an Earth/Space unit were examined. Teachers used the project-based Realistic Explorations in Astronomical Learning curriculum. We used a regression model to analyze the relationship between the students' Lunar Phases Concept Inventory (LPCI) post-test score variables and several predictors, including moon journal score, number of moon journal entries, student gender, teacher experience, and pre-test score. The model shows that students who performed better on moon journals, both in terms of overall score and number of entries, tended to score higher on the LPCI. For every 1 point increase in the overall moon journal score, participants scored 0.18 points (out of 20) or nearly 1% point higher on the LPCI post-test when holding constant the effects of the other two predictors. Similarly, students who increased their scores by 1 point in the overall moon journal score scored approximately 1% higher in the Periodic Patterns (PP) and Geometric Spatial Visualization (GSV) domains of the LPCI. Also, student gender and teacher experience were shown to be significant predictors of post-GSV scores on the LPCI in addition to the pre-test scores, overall moon journal score, and number of entries that were also significant predictors on the LPCI overall score and the PP domain. This study is unique in the purposeful link created between student moon observations and spatial skills. The use of moon journals distinguishes this study further by fostering scientific observation along with skills from across science, technology, engineering, and mathematics disciplines. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The authors examined differences between 2 groups of students’ spatial-scientific reasoning from pre- to postimplementation of an Earth/Space unit. Using a quasi-experimental design, researchers explored how instructional method and gender affected learning. Treatment teachers employed an integrated science, technology, engineering, and mathematics curriculum while the control teacher implemented her regular Earth/Space unit. The Geometric Spatial Assessment (GSA), the Purdue-Spatial Visualization Rotation Test, and the Lunar Phases Concept Inventory (LPCI) were used to assess learning. Experimental groups made gains on periodicity LPCI domains while the control made gains on geometric spatial visualization LPCI domains. Only girls made gains on GSA items. This is the first quasi-experimental study to examine students’ spatial reasoning as they participate in Earth/Space units and to discover gender's role in this spatial development. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Research has shown that spatial ability plays a key role in understanding STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) content, including chemistry. Conservation of Matter (CoM) is an essential but challenging topic for chemistry students of all ages to grasp; it is often taught in a way where students memorize it but do not learn what it means conceptually. This research explored the relationship between understanding spatial ability and conceptual understanding of CoM in middle school students. CoM was examined in two ways using the Conservation of Matter Assessment (CoMA): through questions on conservation of atoms and the conservation of mass. Spatial ability was measured using the Purdue Spatial Visual Test: Rotations (PSVT). Significant, moderate correlations were found between spatial ability and understanding of CoM prior to and after a chemistry unit including instruction on CoM; the correlation was stronger after instruction. Scores on the PSVT and CoMA significantly increased pre to post instruction. The data show spatial ability may impact students' understanding of CoM, which contributes to the literature on factors that impact students' understanding of chemistry. Additionally, it provides evidence that teachers should consider including spatially rich experiences in their chemistry classroom, such as making explicit connections between the areas of Johnstone's Triad. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]