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The present study examines both properties of the language and properties of the learner to better understand variability at the earliest stages of second language (L2) acquisition. We used event-related potentials, an oral production task, and a battery of individual differences measures to examine the processing of number and gender agreement in two groups of low-proficiency English-speaking learners of Spanish who were tested in multiple sessions. The results showed an advantage for number, the feature also instantiated in the native language, as both groups showed a native-like P600 response to subject-verb and noun-adjective number violations across sessions. The more advanced group showed larger effects for number and marginal sensitivity to gender violations. These results suggest that native-like processing of shared features is possible even for novice learners, contrary to proposals suggesting that all morphosyntactic dependencies are initially processed in a non-native manner. Working memory (WM) was a predictor of P600 effects for number and also for gender (where the effect was marginal), suggesting that similar abilities may capture variability in the processing of both shared and unique features despite differences in overall sensitivity. Furthermore, whereas WM predicted performance on online tasks (P600 effects/oral production), verbal aptitude predicted performance on tasks examining morphosyntactic accuracy (grammaticality judgment task/oral production). Our results show that the linguistic properties of the L2, the individual characteristics of the learner, and the nature of the task at hand all play an important role in capturing the variability often observed in the L2 processing of agreement.

By 2060, the United States population will be nearly 30% Hispanic, making Hispanism vital to students' engagement with the full breadth of their own societal fabric (Colby and Ortman 2015: 9). To replace current "reductionist" valuations of foreign language (FL) study as the depositor of career-enhancing skills, we argue for a four-year curricular vision focusing on the development of translingual and transcultural competence, and for a clearer articulation of the value of our work as teachers and scholars of Spanish. We project a future that replaces reductionist symptoms of a broader crisis in higher education with a model that makes our work central to solving that crisis.

We review the evolution of the modern language textbook, exploring its function in the curriculum of Spanish classes. In light of the advantages offered by new technological resources, we propose that the paper-based textbook has outlived its usefulness in today's multidimensional world, both logistically and pedagogically. To demonstrate, we explore three aspects of the paperless classroom: a transformed focus, a design that makes learning visible, and digital implementation. Specific examples are from two projects for introductory and intermediate Spanish.

The present study utilizes traditional silent reading and a think-aloud procedure to investigate the role of lexical cues to meaning in the incidental acquisition of the Spanish future tense. A total of 161 beginning-level university students of Spanish participated in the study. Two versions of a reading passage that contained 13 target items were created: One version contained a title and lexical temporal indicators (LTIs) in each sentence that contained a target verb, whereas the passage appeared with no title and no lexical cues in the second version. Both procedures employed the same tasks to measure the effects of LTIs on learner comprehension and processing of the 13 novel forms. The tasks were scored and submitted to statistical analysis. Results indicate that for both the silent reading and the think-aloud conditions, LTIs augment learner comprehension and do not detract from learners' noticing of forms. Furthermore, the text interaction format of the think-aloud protocol was found to significantly enhance recognition and production of the previously unfamiliar forms in the input.