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We analyze the gravity waves (GWs) observed by a Rayleigh lidar at the Arctic Lidar Observatory for Middle Atmosphere Research (ALOMAR) (16.08°E, 69.38°N) in Norway at z ∼ 20–85 km on 12–14 January 2016. These GWs propagate upward and downward away from zknee = 57 and 64 km at a horizontally-displaced location with periods τr ∼ 5–10 hr and vertical wavelengths λz ∼ 9–20 km. Because the hodographs are distorted, we introduce an alternative method to determine the GW parameters. We find that these GWs are medium to large-scale, and propagate north/northwestward with intrinsic horizontal phase speeds of ∼35–65 m/s. Since the GW parameters are similar above and below zknee, these are secondary GWs created by local body forces (LBFs) south/southeast of ALOMAR. We use the nudged HIAMCM (HIgh Altitude Mechanistic general Circulation Model) to model these events. Remarkably, the model reproduces similar GW structures over ALOMAR, with zknee = 58 and 66 km. The event #1 GWs are created by a LBF at ∼35°E, ∼60°N, and z ∼ 58 km. This LBF is created by the breaking and dissipation of primary GWs generated and amplified by the imbalance of the polar night jet below the wind maximum; the primary GWs for this event are created at z ∼ 25–35 km at 49–53°N. We also find that the HIAMCM GWs agree well with those observed by the Atmospheric InfraRed Sounder (AIRS) satellite, and that those AIRS GWs south and north of ∼50°N over Europe are mainly mountain waves and GWs from the polar vortex, respectively.

JGR / Atmospheres 128(11), e2022JD038249 (2023). doi:10.1029/2022JD038249, An international joint research project, entitled Interhemispheric Coupling Study by Observations and Modelling (ICSOM), is ongoing. In the late 2000s, an interesting form of interhemispheric coupling (IHC) was discovered: when warming occurs in the winter polar stratosphere, the upper mesosphere in the summer hemisphere also becomes warmer with a time lag of days. This IHC phenomenon is considered to be a coupling through processes in the middle atmosphere (i.e., stratosphere, mesosphere, and lower thermosphere). Several plausible mechanisms have been proposed so far, but they are still controversial. This is mainly because of the difficulty in observing and simulating gravity waves (GWs) at small scales, despite the important role they are known to play in middle atmosphere dynamics. In this project, by networking sparsely but globally distributed radars, mesospheric GWs have been simultaneously observed in seven boreal winters since 2015/16. We have succeeded in capturing five stratospheric sudden warming events and two polar vortex intensification events. This project also includes the development of a new data assimilation system to generate long-term reanalysis data for the whole middle atmosphere, and simulations by a state-of-the-art GW-permitting general circulation model using the reanalysis data as initial values. By analyzing data from these observations, data assimilation, and model simulation, comprehensive studies to investigate the mechanism of IHC are planned. This paper provides an overview of ICSOM, but even initial results suggest that not only GWs but also large-scale waves are important for the mechanism of the IHC., Published by Wiley, Hoboken, NJ

The high-latitude phenomenon of noctilucent clouds (NLCs) is characterised by a silvery-blue or pale blue colour. In this study, we employ the radiative transfer model SCIATRAN to simulate spectra of solar radiation scattered by NLCs for a ground-based observer and assuming spherical NLC particles. To determine the resulting colours of NLCs in an objective way, the CIE (International Commission on Illumination) colour-matching functions and chromaticity values are used. Different processes and parameters potentially affecting the colour of NLCs are investigated, i.e. the size of the NLC particles, the abundance of middle atmospheric O3 and the importance of multiply scattered solar radiation. We affirm previous research indicating that solar radiation absorption in the O3 Chappuis bands can have a significant effect on the colour of the NLCs. A new result of this study is that for sufficiently large NLC optical depths and for specific viewing geometries, O3 plays only a minor role for the blueish colour of NLCs. The simulations also show that the size of the NLC particles affects the colour of the clouds. Cloud particles of unrealistically large sizes can lead to a reddish colour. Furthermore, the simulations show that the contribution of multiple scattering to the total scattering is only of minor importance, providing additional justification for the earlier studies on this topic, which were all based on the single-scattering approximation.

A virtual meteor radar system based on the upper-atmosphere extension of the high-resolution ICOsahedral Non-hydrostatic general circulation model is constructed to validate multistatic specular meteor radar (SMR) analyses. The virtual radar system examines the validity of mean winds and gradients estimation techniques used in multistatic SMRs. The study is motivated by unexpected mean values and tide-like features recently observed in the vertical velocities estimated from multistatic SMRs at different latitudes in the mesosphere and lower thermosphere. The proposed analysis confirms multistatic SMR systems' excellent capability to measure the horizontal mean wind components and gradient terms. It is also found that multistatic SMRs can estimate mean vertical winds if they have an amplitude greater than ±2 m/s. Due to the smoothing inherent to the model results, these results should be treated as lower bounds to the error incurred using real data. Hourly variability in vertical velocity estimates up to ±1–2 m/s in the observed vertical winds are due to contamination by small-scale horizontal structures in the horizontal winds.

The C1-ungrouped carbonaceous chondrite Flensburg fell in Germany on September 12, 2019, in the daytime. We determined the atmospheric trajectory, velocity, and heliocentric orbit using one dedicated AllSky6 meteor camera and three casual video records of the bolide. It was found that the meteorite originated in the vicinity of the 5:2 resonance with Jupiter at heliocentric distance of 2.82 AU. When combined with the bolide energy reported by the U.S. Government sensors (USGS), the pre-atmospheric diameter of the meteoroid was estimated to 2 - 3 meters and the mass to 10,000 - 20,000 kg. The meteoroid fragmented heavily in the atmosphere at heights of 46 - 37 km, under dynamic pressures of 0.7 - 2 MPa. The recovery of just one meteorite suggests that only a very small part of the original mass reached the ground. The bolide velocity vector was compared with that reported by the USGS. There is good agreement in the radiant but the velocity value has been underestimated by the USGS by almost 1 km/s., Comment: Preprint accepted for publication in Meteoritics & Planetary Science after a minor revision

A first sounding rocket campaign dedicated to investigate the creation mechanism of Polar Mesosphere Winter Echoes (PMWE) was conducted in April 2018 from the north Norwegian Andoya Space Center (69 ∘ N, 16 ∘ E). Two instrumented sounding rockets were launched on 13th and 18th of April under PMWE and non-PMWE conditions, respectively. In this paper we give an overview of the PMWE sounding rocket mission. We describe and discuss some results of combined in situ and ground-based measurements which allow to verify existing PMWE theories. Our measurements ultimately show that: a) polar winter mesosphere is abounded with meteor smoke particles (MSP) and intermittent turbulent layers, b) all PMWE observed during this campaign can be explained by neutral air turbulence, c) turbulence creates small-scale structures in all D-region constituents, including free electrons; d) MSP ultimately influence the radar volume reflectivity by distorting the turbulence spectrum of electrons, e) the influence of MSP and of background electron density is just to increase SNR.

Simultaneous measurements of rocket-borne and ground-based instruments in a common volume were performed from Andoya, Norway (69° N, 16° E) in frame of the recent PMWE-project, devoted to clarify the formation mechanism behind polar mesosphere winter echoes (PMWE). This article focuses on measurements of April, 13th 2018. Despite low solar activity, we observe several radar echoes, giving the launch criterion. Combining precise in-situ ionization gauge and wave propagation measurements with ground-based radar measurements on 53.5 and 3.17 MHz, as well as lidar, we were able to measure key parameters of PMWE formation. Carefully analyzing the atmospheric background (i.e., temperature, viscosity, Brunt-Vaisala frequency, and scale heights of electron and neutral density), deriving turbulence parameters by means of radar and rocket, as well as estimating particle sizes of meteor smoke particles (MSP), we got a deep insight into the physical processes behind the PMWE phenomenon. Measurements clearly show that the coherent structures in refractive index variations (forming PMWE) are accompanied by neutral air turbulence, which is reflected in small-scale structures (down to some meters) of neutral and electron density. We analyze and discuss the temporal development of the radar echos by means of spectral width and wind measurements. We show that the behavior of the structures under investigation together with the atmospheric background is consistent with the interpretation, that PMWE were created by turbulence. Furthermore, it becomes clear that charged Meteor Smoke Particles (MSP) and background electron density can only enhance SNR, while turbulence is a prerequisite for their formation.

A very bright bolide illuminated the sky over Denmark and neighboring countries on February 6th, 2016 at 21:07:18-23UT. It terminated by a multiple meteorite fall in the heavily populated area of the western outskirts of Copenhagen. Several meteorites classified as the H5/6 ordinary chondrites have been found shortly after the fall and total recovered mass reached almost 9 kg (Haack, 2016). Although this spectacular bolide has been reported by many casual witnesses, the instrumental records are very scarce, mainly due to bad weather over Denmark and neighboring countries. Despite it we were able to collect five instrumental records taken from different locations which were useful for the analysis of this event. We used three high resolution digital photographic images taken in Germany, one high resolution radiometric light curve taken by the northernmost Czech automated fireball observatory and one video record taken by a surveillance camera on the Danish west coast where a part of the fireball trajectory was recorded. It allowed us to reliably determine basic parameters defining the luminous trajectory of the bolide in the atmosphere and also heliocentric orbit of the initial meteoroid causing this spectacular meteorite fall. We found that this event was caused by a relatively fragile 50 cm meteoroid with initial mass about 250 kg. It entered the atmosphere with velocity of 14.5 km s −1 and quite steep entry angle of 62°. Its luminous flight started at 85.5 km and after 76 km long trajectory it terminated at 18.3 km. The heliocentric orbit of this meteoroid was of Apollo type with low inclination of 1° and perihelion distance just inside the Earth's orbit. It had a relatively large semimajor axis of 2.8 AU and aphelion distance 4.64 AU. It is the second largest aphelion distance among all meteorites with known orbits and the orbit had the same character as that of the Kosice meteorite (H5 ordinary chondrite), which fell on February 28, 2010 (Borovicka et al., 2013).

Noctilucent clouds (NLC) are measured by the Rayleigh/Mie/Raman-lidar at the ALOMAR research facility in Northern Norway (69°N, 16°E) since 1994. The data set contains about 2860 h of NLC detections and is investigated for the first time regarding trends. NLC properties depend on cloud brightness which is taken into account by the use of several cloud classes, related to brightness ranges. For NLC brighter than the long-term detection limit and strong NLC, respectively, the trend terms show increasing occurrence frequency (+9%/dec and+5%/dec) and brightness (+1.7×10−10 m−1 sr−1/dec and +1.5×−10 m−1 sr−1/dec) from 1998 to 2015. In the same period the altitude of faint and long-term limit clouds decreases (−66 m/dec and −108 m/dec). Over the entire time period of 22 years strong clouds show an increasing altitude by +76 m/dec. NLC properties are affected differently by solar and atmospheric parameters. In general, Lyman-α and stratospheric ozone impact all three NLC parameters, temperature at 83 km impacts mainly the NLC altitude. Time series of RMR lidar and SBUV satellite instruments match best for NLC occurrence frequency and brightness when restricting SBUV to the morning data at longitudes around ALOMAR (64–74°N, 8–24°E/0–9 LT). This suggests longitudinal dependent trends, which is confirmed by trend investigations of longitudinal subsets of the SBUV data set.

Noctilucent clouds (NLC) have been observed with the ALOMAR Rayleigh/Mie/Raman lidar at 69° N using a temporal resolution of 30 s since 2008. We present an approach to identify and analyze the localized small scale wave structures of the varying altitude of the NLC layers in the range of 5–30 min that may be caused by gravity waves. Small scale gravity waves breaking in the mesopause region contribute notably to the momentum flux but are difficult to observe and to characterize. The approach is based on a template matching method using generalized structures to be identified in the NLC observations. The new method permits the identification of structures that are present in NLC only for a time too short to appear in a Fourier or wavelet spectrum. Without the need for a continuous time series the method can handle multiple NLC layers and data gaps. In the 2000 h of NLC data from the years 2008–2015, we find almost 5000 single wave structures with a total length of 738 h. The structures are found on average 400 m below the NLC centroid altitude and a large number of the structures has a length at the lower limit of 5 min. With the background wind from the meteor radar near ALOMAR a horizontal scale is estimated based on the length of the individual structures. The distribution of horizontal scales shows a peak of wave structures at 15–20 km in accordance with the horizontal wavelengths found by ground-based camera observations of NLC.

Trends derived from the Leibniz-Institute Middle Atmosphere Model (LIMA) and the MIMAS ice particle model (Mesospheric Ice Microphysics And tranSport model) are presented for a period of 138 years (1871–2008) and for middle, high and arctic latitudes, namely 58 °N, 69 N ∘ N, and 78 °N, respectively. We focus on the analysis of mesospheric ice layers (NLC, noctilucent clouds) in the main summer season (July) and on yearly mean values. Model runs with and without an increase of carbon dioxide and water vapor (from methane oxidation) concentration are performed. Trends are most prominent after ∼ 1960 when the increase of both CO2 and H2O accelerates. It is important to distinguish between tendencies on geometric altitudes and on given pressure levels converted to altitudes (‘pressure altitudes’). Negative trends of (geometric) NLC altitudes are primarily due to cooling below NLC altitudes caused by CO2 increase. Increases of ice particle radii and NLC brightness with time are mainly caused by an enhancement of water vapor. Several ice layer and background parameter trends are similar at high and arctic latitudes but are substantially different at middle latitudes. This concerns, for example, occurrence rates, ice water content (IWC), and number of ice particles in a column. Considering the time period after 1960, geometric altitudes of NLC decrease by approximately 260 m per decade, and brightness increases by roughly 50% (1960–2008), independent of latitude. NLC altitudes decrease by approximately 15–20 m per increase of CO2 by 1 ppmv. The number of ice particles in a column and also at the altitude of maximum backscatter is nearly constant with time. At all latitudes, yearly mean NLC appear at altitudes where temperatures are close to 145 ± 1 K. Ice particles are present nearly all the time at high and arctic latitudes, but are much less common at middle latitudes. Ice water content and maximum backscatter ( β max ) are highly correlated, where the slope depends on latitude. This allows to combine data sets from satellites and lidars. Furthermore, IWC and the concentration of water vapor at β max are also strongly correlated. Nearly all trends depend on a lower limit applied for β max , e.g., IWC and occurrence rates. Results from LIMA/MIMAS are in very good agreement with observations.

Noctilucent clouds (NLC) are mesospheric ice clouds occurring in the summer hemisphere at high latitudes and an altitude of about 83km. This region is the coldest of the earth’s atmosphere and is characterized by the presence of wave interaction and dissipation. The processes involved here lead to a variety of structures and instabilities that become visible in noctilucent clouds and are observed by different instruments. In this work high-resolution lidar measurements are used to give a wide overview of the structures at small scales below the Brunt–Vaisala period of ∼ 5min. For the first time a large amount of NLC profiles from lidar with a temporal resolution of 1s is analyzed in detail, covering about 1400h during the summer from 2011 to 2018. A new categorization focusing on small-scale structures is introduced, and occurrence statistics for these categories in the season of 2014 are performed. Both wave structures with periods below 10min and thin layers of 100m thickness are commonly found. When taking simultaneous wind measurements into account, we find that structures often are advected by the wind.

On 21 May the ALOMAR RMR-lidar in Northern Norway detected the first noctilucent clouds (NLC) in 2013. This unusual early NLC onset was accompanied by ∼6 K lower temperatures and higher water vapor mixing ratios at NLC altitudes from the end of April until the beginning of June. The zonal mean temperature and dynamic conditions in the Arctic middle atmosphere deviated in spring 2013 significantly from the mean conditions of the last 20 years. Furthermore the planetary wave activity in the high latitude stratosphere was enhanced from 20 April to beginning of May. The colder and wetter upper mesosphere in May 2013 is attributed to this unusual late planetary wave activity in the stratosphere, introducing a strong upwelling in the mesosphere, lower temperatures and an upward transport of water vapor, which finally resulted in earlier existence conditions for mesospheric ice particles. We regard this as a first evidence for intra-hemispheric coupling in the northern hemisphere extending from the stratosphere into the mesopause region. Yet it is unclear whether this is an unusual extreme event or an indicator for a change in the circulation due to the observed long-term cooling of the middle atmosphere.

An evaluation of upper stratosphere lower mesosphere (USLM) horizontal winds from MERRA reanalysis is performed using rocket sounding observations that span more than 5 years (November 2002–November 2007) over Thumba (8.5°N, 77°E). With Rocket sonde profiles as reference, bias and root mean square deviation (RMSD) are computed between 10 hPa and 0.1 hPa (∼30–65 km) on annual and seasonal time scales. The present results reveal that observations and reanalysis correlate reasonably well in zonal winds below 60 km. The detailed comparison showed increasing RMSDs with height reaching largest value at 0.1 hPa. RMSD noted in the zonal winds are larger than in the meridional winds. Positive biases are noted in the zonal winds around 50 km with large values during seasonal transition period that led to 30% overestimation of the stratospheric semiannual amplitude. The meridional winds are not well reproduced in the reanalysis. Possible reasons for the differences between MERRA and rocket soundings are discussed. The present study is the first attempt to validate MERRA reanalysis data with observations in the USLM region. Over all good agreement in the zonal winds between MERRA reanalysis data and RH-200 is very encouraging and vouches for using the MERRA reanalysis zonal winds belowProd. Type: FTP 0.1 hPa, but with caution around 1 hPa.

New capabilities for imaging small-scale instabilities and turbulence and for modeling gravity wave (GW), instability, and turbulence dynamics at high Reynolds numbers are employed to identify the major instabilities and quantify turbulence intensities near the summer mesopause. High-resolution imaging of polar mesospheric clouds (PMCs) reveal a range of instability dynamics and turbulence sources that have their roots in multi-scale GW dynamics at larger spatial scales. Direct numerical simulations (DNS) of these dynamics exhibit a range of instability types that closely resemble instabilities and turbulence seen in PMC imaging and by ground-based and in-situ instruments at all times and altitudes. The DNS also exhibit the development of “sheet-and-layer” (S&L) structures in the horizontal wind and thermal stability fields that resemble observed flows near the mesopause and at lower altitudes. Both observations and modeling suggest major roles for GW breaking, Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities (KHI), and intrusions in turbulence generation and energy dissipation. Of these, larger-scale GW breaking and KHI play the major roles in energetic flows leading to strong turbulence. GW propagation and breaking can span several S&L features and induce KHI ranging from GW to turbulence scales. Intrusions make comparable contributions to turbulence generation as instabilities become weaker and more intermittent. Turbulence intensities are highly variable in the vertical and typically span 3 or more decades. DNS results that closely resemble observed flows suggest a range of mechanical energy dissipation rates of e ~10−3–10 W kg−1 that is consistent with the range of in-situ measurements at ~80–90 km in summer.

A companion paper describes high-resolution, ground-based imaging of apparent Kelvin-Helmholtz instabilities (KHI) observed in noctilucent clouds (NLCs) near the polar summer mesopause. Here we employ direct numerical simulations of KHI at Richardson numbers from Ri = 0.05 to 0.20 and relatively high Reynolds numbers to illustrate the dependence of KHI and secondary instabilities on these quantities and interpret and quantify the KHI events described by Baumgarten and Fritts (2014). We conclude that one event triggered by small-scale gravity waves provides clear evidence of strong KHI initiated at Ri ~0.05–0.10. Events arising in a more uniform shear environment exhibit KHI and small-scale dynamics that compare reasonably well with modeled KHI initiated at Ri ~0.20. Our application of numerical modeling in quantifying KHI dynamics observed in NLCs suggests that characteristics of KHI, and perhaps other small-scale dynamics, that are defined well in NLC displays can be used to quantify the dynamics and spatial scales of such events with high confidence. Specifically, our comparisons of KHI observations and modeling appear to indicate a “turbulent” viscosity ~5–40 times the true kinematic viscosity at the NLC altitude. This offers an alternative, or an augmentation, to more traditional radar, lidar, and/or airglow measurements employed for such studies of small-scale dynamics at coarser spatial scales during polar summer.

Noctilucent clouds (NLCs) have been imaged during two nights in summer 2009 from northern Germany (Kuhlungsborn, 54°N) and middle Norway (Trondheim, 64°N). For the first time a horizontal resolution of 10 to 20 m at the altitude of the clouds (about 83 km) and a temporal resolution of about 1 s was achieved. Additional imaging using a coarser resolution provided monitoring of the larger-scale (~100 km) structures observed in the clouds. Two series of NLC images are described that reveal apparent Kelvin-Helmholtz (KH) billow structures having very different morphologies and apparent transitions to turbulence and mixing. One series exhibits deep KH billows and apparent secondary instabilities in the billow exteriors having streamwise alignment (and spanwise wave number), suggesting a small initial Richardson number (Ri). A second series of images suggests a larger and less unstable Ri, a slower KH billow evolution, shallower billows, and turbulence and mixing confined to the billow cores. We suggest that systematic exploration of these dynamics employing NLC imaging may enable characterization and quantification of KH instability occurrence statistics and of their contributions to turbulence and mixing in the summer mesopause environment with unique sensitivity to their small-scale dynamics.

Long-term observations from medium-frequency and meteor radars (1993–2012) and rocket soundings (1979–1990 and 2002–2007) are used to study mesosphere and lower thermosphere (MLT) zonal wind variations in relation to the stratospheric winds over northern low latitudes. The combined data set provides a complete height profile of amplitude of semiannual oscillation (SAO) up to 100 km, with an exception around 75–80 km. The SAO signal has maxima around 50 km and 82 km and a minimum around 65 km. The MLT zonal winds show remarkable interannual variability during northern hemispheric spring equinox and much less during fall equinox. Zonal wind mesospheric spring equinox enhancements (MSEE) appear with a periodicity of 2–3 years, suggesting a modulation by the quasi-biennial oscillation, which we identified with the strength of stratospheric westward winds. Out of 20 years of observations, the stratospheric westward winds are strong during 11 years (non-MSEE) and weak during 9 years. Six of these 9 years show large MLT winds (MSEE), and 3 years (1999, 2004, and 2006) show small MLT winds (missing MSEE). These unexpected small winds occur in years with global circulation anomalies associated with strong sudden stratospheric warmings and an early spring transition of zonal winds. With the proposed three MSEE classes, we take into account local and global forcing factors.

The 3-D Lagrangian model LIMA/ICE is used to track ice particles forming noctilucent clouds (NLC). Fifty strong NLC events at three different latitudes are analyzed. Visible particles are traced back to their nucleation sites as well as traced forward until sublimation. Particle nucleation occurs in bursts within areas of high supersaturation. We characterize NLC particle growth and vertical transport: Slow growth occurs below the mesopause up to ≈ 6 h before observation. It is followed by rapid growth within the high water vapor zone around 83 km during phases of upward winds. At the same time temperature perturbations in these cold phases of waves lead to a high supersaturation. Sublimation occurs quickly after maximum brightness, since sedimentation into subsaturated altitudes is accelerated by downward winds. The duration of particle visibility ( β > 10 % of observed backscatter) is only ≈ 5 h . The mean particle age of all NLC events at 69°N is around 36 h, but particle age varies by more than 24 h for the different events studied. Although the age of particles in strong NLC depends on latitude, the visibility period does not. The brightness of strong NLC depends mainly on background conditions during the last 3 h before observation. This implies that local measurements, e.g. by lidar, are representative for the morphology of strong NLC on scales of several hundred kilometers.

Lidar measurements of noctilucent clouds (NLC) were conducted by the Davis Rayleigh-/Raman-lidar in Antarctica (68.58°S, 77.97°E) and by the Rayleigh-/Mie-/Raman-lidar at the ALOMAR observatory in northern Norway (69.28°N, 16.01°E). We compare southern and northern hemisphere NLC at time scales of 10 min to several hours using multi-year datasets (four seasons at ALOMAR, 2008–2011, and nine seasons at Davis, 2001/2002 to 2009/2010). NLC characteristics studied include the vertical structure of NLC layers, the duration of NLC layers as well as the apparent downward motion of NLC layers with time. We find multiple layers during 9% of all NLC observations with vertical separations of double layers between 1.5 and 3 km. The mean downward progression of NLC with measurement time is −0.3 km/h and comparable at Davis and ALOMAR. We find no general spatial tilt of the layer at ALOMAR but individual layers show up to 2 km altitude difference at 40 km horizontal separation. Typical NLC observations at both stations last about 5 hours, hinting at horizontal extents of about 700 km, and reoccur after approximately 10 hours. This is in the range of mid-frequency gravity waves (GW). On short-time scales NLC characteristics are presumably impacted by small scale processes in the vicinity of the clouds, generated by e.g. breaking GW. In addition, we discuss a possible relation to GW by looking at the influence of stratospheric wind conditions on NLC layer characteristics at 69°S.

The Cloud Imaging and Particle Size (CIPS) instrument has been in operation on the NASA Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere (AIM) satellite since May 2007. CIPS is a multi-camera UV imager that makes unprecedented hemispheric-scale measurements of polar mesospheric clouds (PMC). The primary CIPS data products are cloud frequency, albedo, mean particle radius, ice water content and vertical column particle density. These quantities are retrieved at 25 km2 resolution at latitudes between ~55° and 84° over a range of local times in the summer hemisphere. CIPS has obtained data for six Northern Hemisphere and five Southern Hemisphere PMC seasons to date and is still in operation and performing flawlessly. The CIPS data are made available to the scientific community in a variety of formats and spatial and temporal resolution, including full-resolution single-orbit level 2 data files and images, daily (hemispheric) albedo maps and images, and full-season latitude-binned summary files. In this paper we describe the CIPS measurement strategy and sampling characteristics, calibration and the Version 4.20 processing algorithms and retrievals. We also provide a quantitative evaluation of the CIPS cloud detection sensitivity and estimated random and systematic errors of the V4.20 cloud data products.

From 19 November to 19 December 2010 the fourth and final ECOMA rocket campaign was conducted at Andøya Rocket Range (69° N, 16° E) in northern Norway. We present and discuss measurement results obtained during the last rocket launch labelled ECOMA09 when simultaneous and true common volume in situ measurements of temperature and turbulence supported by ground-based lidar observations reveal two Mesospheric Inversion Layers (MIL) at heights between 71 and 73 km and between 86 and 89 km. Strong turbulence was measured in the region of the upper inversion layer, with the turbulent energy dissipation rates maximising at 2 W kg−1. This upper MIL was observed by the ALOMAR Weber Na lidar over the period of several hours. The spatial extension of this MIL as observed by the MLS instrument onboard AURA satellite was found to be more than two thousand kilometres. Our analysis suggests that both observed MILs could possibly have been produced by neutral air turbulence.

During winter the wind field in the mesosphere/lower thermosphere (MLT) at middle and polar latitudes is characterized by a strong variability due to enhanced planetary wave activity and related stratospheric sudden warming (SSW) events. Such events are considered as distinct vertical coupling processes influencing the atmosphere below and above the stratosphere. In the last 12 years, an enhanced number of SSW, compared to the period from 1989 to 1998, has been observed in the northern hemisphere. Every SSW is connected with different effects in the MLT (strength and temporal development of wind reversals, temperature changes, wave activity, longitudinal dependence). To characterize the average behavior of the mesospheric response to strong SSWs, we combine high-resolution wind measurements from MF- and meteor radar at Andenes (69°N, 16°E) with global temperature observations from MLS aboard the Aura satellite for SSW events with a return to the middle atmosphere normal winter condition afterwards. Our aim is to identify characteristic wave patterns which are common to the majority of these events and to define the average characteristics of the SSW-related wave activity in the MLT. These will be compared to the relatively quiet winter 2011 with only a short minor warming without a wind reversal and to the wave activity in 2009 and 2010. The results show clear signatures of enhanced mesospheric planetary wave activity before and during the SSW and an earlier onset of the short term wind reversal in the mesosphere compared to wind and temperature changes in the stratosphere. The strong eastward winds at altitudes below 80 km after SSW are connected with an enhanced gravity wave activity caused by changed filter conditions. This provides evidence for a strong modulation of semidiurnal tidal amplitudes before and during SSW by planetary waves. However, no clear relation has been found in the temporal development of tides relative to the onset of the selected SSW events.

Enell, Carl-Fredrik; Hedin, Jonas; Stegman, Jacek; Witt, Georg; Friedrich, Martin; Singer, Werner; Baumgarten, Gerd; Kaifler, B.; Hoppe, Ulf-Peter; Gustavsson, Bjorn; Brandstrom, U.; Khaplanov, Mikhail; Kero, Antti; Ulich, Thomas; Turunen, E.. The Hotel Payload 2 campaign: Overview of NO, O and electron density measurements in the upper mesosphere and lower thermosphere. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics 2011 ;Volum 73.(14-15) s. 2228-2236

A synchronized observation of a noctilucent cloud (NLC) using an airborne camera and a polar mesospheric cloud (PMC) using spaceborne cameras was obtained on 6 July 2009. Two Canon EOS-30D cameras were integrated to a Mooney M20K research aircraft and flown to a location of 58.32°N, 112.30OW in Northern Alberta, Canada to coordinate with the overpass of the Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere (AIM) satellite at 06:48 GMT. The aircraft was positioned so that imagery would be taken while the sun was at a solar depression angle (SDA) of 8.5° and then oriented so that the imager would be pointed along the AIM groundtrack. The common-volume imagery obtained from both the cloud imaging and particle size (CIPS) experiment and the aircraft at the time of the AIM overpass concurrently detected clouds identified by similar band structures. The imagery from the aircraft also shows fine transverse cloud structures not discernable within the CIPS image, implying that greater spatial resolution is achievable through the airborne imagery. Subsequent analysis of the CIPS imagery from the AIM satellite at this location shows a correlation in orientation of the prominent structures in both sets of imagery, showing overlay of prominent features and coincidence of band orientation.

The Solar Occultation For Ice Experiment (SOFIE) was launched onboard the Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere (AIM) spacecraft to measure polar mesospheric clouds (PMCs) and their environment. This work describes methods for identifying PMCs in SOFIE observations and determining mass density, particle shape, particle effective radius, and the parameters of a Gaussian size distribution. Results using SOFIE measurements from the northern summer of 2007 are compared with concurrent observations by the ALOMAR lidar in northern Norway. Ice particle properties determined from SOFIE are in good agreement with the lidar results, considering the differences in instrument characteristics.

We present a climatology of noctilucent cloud (NLC) occurrence rate (northern and southern hemisphere) and particle size (northern hemisphere) based on SCIAMACHY measurements between 2002 and 2007. An interannual analysis of occurrence rates shows no trend in the northern hemisphere despite the decreasing solar activity during that period. The mean NLC particle radius for a Gaussian particle size distribution with σ = 22 nm is 68.0 ± 11.4 nm . There is an increase of the particle size with latitude, with a gradient as large as 2 nm / deg for latitudes larger than 75 ∘ . SCIAMACHY observes an increase of mean NLC particle size during the last 5 years at latitudes higher than 70 ∘ , which might be linked to the decrease in solar activity. The interannual variability of the seasonally averaged particle size is ± 2 nm in a given latitude band. Results concerning the sensitivity of the retrieval to the particle shape and particle size distribution assumed width are also presented.

We here report on the characteristics of exceptionally high Noctilucent clouds (NLC) that were detected with rocket photometers during the ECOMA/MASS campaign at Andøya, Norway 2007. The results from three separate flights are shown and discussed in connection to lidar measurements. Both the lidar measurements and the large difference between various rocket passages through the NLC show that the cloud layer was inhomogeneous on large scales. Two passages showed a particularly high, bright and vertically extended cloud, reaching to approximately 88 km. Long time series of lidar measurements show that NLC this high are very rare, only one NLC measurement out of thousand reaches above 87 km. The NLC is found to consist of three distinct layers. All three were bright enough to allow for particle size retrieval by phase function analysis, even though the lowest layer proved too horizontally inhomogeneous to obtain a trustworthy result. Large particles, corresponding to an effective radius of 50 nm, were observed both in the middle and top of the NLC. The present cloud does not comply with the conventional picture that NLC ice particles nucleate near the temperature minimum and grow to larger sizes as they sediment to lower altitudes. Strong up-welling, likely caused by gravity wave activity, is required to explain its characteristics.

The first sounding rocket of the European ECOMA-project (ECOMA, Existence and Charge state Of Meteoric smoke particles in the middle Atmosphere) was launched on 8 September 2006. Measurements with ...

We present in situ observations of mesospheric ice particles with a new particle detector which combines a classical Faraday cup with the active photoionization of particles and subsequent detection of photoelectrons. Our observations of charged particles and free electrons within a decaying PMSE-layer reveal that the presence of charged particles is a necessary but not sufficient condition for the presence of PMSE. That is, additional requirements like a sufficiently large electron density – which we here estimate to be on the order of ~100 cm−3 – and the presence of small scale structures (commonly assumed to be caused by turbulence) need to be satisfied. Our photoelectron measurements reveal a very strong horizontal structuring of the investigated ice layer, i.e., a very broad layer (82–88 km) seen on the upleg is replaced by a narrow layer from 84.5–86 km only 50 km apart on the downleg of the rocket flight. Importantly, the qualitative structure of these photoelectron profiles is in remarkable qualitative agreement with photometer measurements on the same rocket thus demonstrating the reliability of this new technique. We then show that the photoelectron currents are a unique function of the ice particle volume density (and hence ice mass) within an uncertainty of only 15% and we derive corresponding altitude profiles of ice volume densities. Derived values are in the range ~2–8×10−14 cm3/cm3 (corresponding to mass densities of ~20–80 ng/m3, and water vapor mixing ratios of 3–12 ppm) and are the first such estimates with the unique spatial resolution of an in situ measurement.

Rayleigh lidar temperature profiles have been derived in the polar middle atmosphere from 834 measurements with the ALOMAR Rayleigh/Mie/Raman lidar (69.3° N, 16.0° E) in the years 1997–2005. Since our instrument is able to operate under full daylight conditions, the unique data set presented here extends over the entire year and covers the altitude region 30 km–85 km in winter and 30 km–65 km in summer. Comparisons of our lidar data set to reference atmospheres and ECMWF analyses show agreement within a few Kelvin in summer but in winter higher temperatures below 55 km and lower temperatures above by as much as 25 K, due likely to superior resolution of stratospheric warming and associated mesospheric cooling events. We also present a temperature climatology for the entire lower and middle atmosphere at 69° N obtained from a combination of lidar measurements, falling sphere measurements and ECMWF analyses. Day to day temperature variability in the lidar data is found to be largest in winter and smallest in summer.

Noctilucent clouds (NLC) have been observed by a Rayleigh/Mie/Raman (RMR) lidar in Northern Norway (69N,16E) capable to measure the aerosol backscatter coefficients at three wavelengths (355 nm, 532 nm, 1064 nm) and since 1998 also under sunlight conditions. For strong noctilucent cloud events the three backscatter coefficients are used to calculate the parameters of a monomodal particle distribution describing the observed optical properties. We deduce the radius of the particle size distribution, the width, and the average number density of the particle ensemble. To minimize the smearing by a changing structure of the noctilucent clouds we use the lowest possible time and altitude resolutions, which are 14 and 150 min, respectively. Using this, the vertical structure of the particle properties below and above the peak is investigated. From a statistical comparison of the observed ratios of backscatter coefficients we find that under the assumption of spherical particles the lognormal distribution describes the optical properties of NLC above ALOMAR better than the Gaussian distribution. If the optical analysis is extended to aspherical particles then both Gaussian and lognormal distribution can sufficiently describe the optical properties when the axis ratio of the particles is allowed to vary from 1/10 to 10. Using the traditional optical model but the new data inversion method on the summer 1998 NLC data leads to the same results found by von Cossart et al. [von Cossart, G., Fiedler, J., von Zahn, U. Size distributions of NLC particles as determined from 3-colour observations of NLC by ground-based lidar, Geophys. Res. Lett., 26 (11), 1513–1516. doi: 10.1029/1999GL900226, 1999]. Using the new optical model we find that independent of the assumed particle shape the average size of strong NLCs above ALOMAR in 2005 is 47 ± 3 nm for spheroids or cylinders with Gaussian distribution while it is 54 ± 3 nm for the same particles but assuming a lognormal size distribution. The distribution widths are s = 16 ± 1 nm or σ = 1.25 ± 0.03 for Gaussian or lognormal distribution while the particle number-density is N = 120 cm−3 for both cases. This comparison shows that the combination of three widely separated wavelengths used in backscatter geometry allows a robust measurement of the particle size. We recommend performing the sensitivity test of the deduced particle properties on the particle shape also for other optical instruments sounding the NLC particle sizes.

Model results of LIMA (Leibniz Institute Middle Atmosphere Model) are used to reveal tides within the polar summer mesopause region. We specifically analyze temperature, water vapor, all wind components, and maximum backscatter coefficients that determine the brightness of noctilucent clouds as seen by lidars. Lidar measurements at ALOMAR (Arctic Lidar Observatory for Middle Atmosphere Research) in Northern Norway (69°N) and LIMA results show a high day-to-day variation of ice layer properties. Tidal variations are visible only after ice particle and atmospheric parameters from many days are overlayed and averaged. Lidar measurements of the maximum backscatter coefficient at ALOMAR from 2001 show a maximum at approximately 10 LT. The modeled maximum backscatter coefficient in summer 2001 also shows one distinctive maximum but considerably earlier (2 LT). By contrast, long-term observations at ALOMAR from 1997 to 2005 show a clear semidiurnal tidal signal indicating a high annual variability. The sun-synchronous diurnal tide is the prevalent mode in the maximum backscatter coefficient and in all other analyzed model parameters at latitudes poleward of 60°N, except for the vertical wind. In contrast, at lower latitudes eastward propagating non-migrating diurnal tidal components are prominent, especially wave-numbers 3 (DE3) and 4 (DE4). A spectral analysis of the tidal components as a function of latitude indicates that these non-migrating tides originate in the tropics.

We present calculations of scattering of solar UV radiation from polar mesospheric clouds (PMC) for the wavelengths and scattering angles appropriate to the SBUV/2 series of satellite experiments. Our model includes for the first time the effects of non-sphericity of ice particles whose evidence has been recently gained from lidar depolarization experiments. Our results apply to the scattering cross section averaged over a particle size ensemble which spans the mean size and size ranges expected for PMC. We demonstrate that for the size range 20–100 nm (effective spherical particle radius), the wavelength range 252–292 nm, and the scattering angle range 100– 140 ∘ , non-spherical particles cause only moderate ( 35 % ) deviations from conventional Mie theory, which assumes spherical shapes. The total UV scattering efficiency of PMC particles per unit mass of water vapor is not significantly affected by shape effects, in the range of parameters studied. On the other hand, our study suggests that shape effects need to be considered in the analysis of UV spectra of PMC, such as those of Carbary et al. [2004. Evidence for bimodal particle distribution from the spectra of polar mesospheric clouds. Geophysical Research Letters 31 (13), 3108] and DeLand et al. [2005. Spectral measurements of PMCs from SBUV/2 instruments. Journal of Atmospheric and Solar-Terrestrial Physics, to appear, doi: 10.1016/j.astp.2005.08.006]. In particular, attention must also be paid to the scattering angle dependence of the measurements, and the range of scattering angles involved in compiling average spectra of PMC.

[1] The effects of atmospheric gravity waves (AGWs) on Polar Mesospheric Cloud (PMC) evolution and brightness are studied using a two dimensional version of the Community Aerosol and Radiation Model for Atmospheres (CARMA 2D). The primary objectives for doing CARMA modeling of AGW effects on PMCs are to address the question of whether AGWs can account for the rapid, orbit by orbit changes in cloud structure and brightness seen in overlapping regions from images of the Cloud Imaging and Particle Size (CIPS) experiment on board the Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere (AIM) spacecraft. We present comparisons of PMC brightness changes between our numerical simulations and observations from the CIPS experiment. Previous modeling studies have indicated a much longer life-time for PMC than the 90 min between CIPS orbits. We present CARMA 2D results showing dependence of ice particle growth and PMC brightness on AGW perturbation of background temperatures and water vapor concentrations. The model shows differences in brightness of PMCs due to differences in number of large ice particles depending on the scale and periods of the AGWs and also indicates that overall cloud brightness is a function of the wave period. While the maximum rate of change in PMC brightness from the model is still almost a factor of two less than the CIPS observed maximum rate of change in brightness, our study indicates that the variation in PMC brightness is in part due to the upward transport of water vapor into water depleted region by AGWs and the growth of ice particles from sub visual to visual and to larger sizes than they normally would have without AGWs. The presence of short period AGW cause periodic oscillations in cloud brightness about the no-AGW brightness while long-period AGW can temporarily increase the brightness of PMCs compared to the PMC brightness under no-AGW case. However, both the short-period and long-period AGW ultimately reduce the domain averaged PMC brightness in the long-term. This agrees with CIPS observations of generally dimmer PMCs in regions of high AGW activity. The seasonal variation in PMC albedos and the day to day variations seen in CIPS can be reproduced using a spectrum of short and long period AGW.

The space shuttle launched for the last time on 8 July 2011. As with most shuttle launches, the three main engines injected about 350 t of water vapor between 100 and 115 km off the east coast of the United States during its ascent to orbit. We follow the motion of this exhaust with a variety of satellite and ground-based data sets and find that (1) the shuttle water vapor plume spread out horizontally in all directions over a distance of 3000 to 4000 km in 18 h, (2) a portion of the plume reached northern Europe in 21 h to form polar mesospheric clouds (PMCs) that are brighter than over 99% of all PMCs observed in that region, and (3) the observed altitude dependence of the particle size is reversed with larger particles above smaller particles. We use a one- dimensional cloud formation model initialized with predictions of a plume diffusion model to simulate the unusually bright PMCs. We find that eddy mixing can move the plume water vapor down to the mesopause near 90 km where ice particles can form. If the eddy diffusion coefficient is 400 to 1000 m(2)/s, the predicted integrated cloud brightness is in agreement with both satellite and ground-based observations of the shuttle PMCs. The propellant mass of the shuttle is about 20% of that from all vehicles launched during the northern 2011 PMC season. We suggest that the brightest PMC population near 70 degrees N is formed by space traffic exhaust.

International audience; The capability of the longest lidar data sets to monitor long-term temperature changes have been evaluated through comparisons with the successive Stratospheric Sounder Units (SSU) onboard NOAA satellites. Cross-consistency investigations between SSU and the lidar network can be considered as a first attempt to demonstrate how the synergistic use of space and ground-based instruments could provide reliable monitoring of the temperature of the middle atmosphere. The breakdown of the temperature cooling trend, and the following flattening observed in the satellite temperature series, are qualitatively confirmed by the lidars. However, there are still large differences that can either be due to SSU continuity (orbit drifts or weighting function modifications) or lidar operation changes (time of measurements, accuracy, sampling, etc.). SSU vertical weighting functions have been taken into account for comparisons. Some discontinuity events cannot be explained by the SSU weighting function drifts due to CO2. For the upper channels of SSU (peaking around 50 km) the results are probably sensitive to the mesospheric part of the lidar profiles that can explain some discontinuities. Tropical lidar stations show clear inter-annual differences with the SSU channels covering the lowest altitude range that need further investigations to understand if the origin is instrumental or geophysical. An attempt to derive non-linear trends with combinations of linear, hockey stick, and quadratic functions has been made. While the quadratic term is not highly significant, this approach allows the derivation of a better quantification of the linear trend terms.

[1] We have performed trend studies in the mesosphere in the period 1961–2009 with Leibniz-Institute Middle Atmosphere (LIMA) model driven by European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts reanalysis below approximately 40 km and adapts temporal variations of CO2 and O3 according to observations. Temperatures in the mesosphere/lower thermosphere vary nonuniformly with time, mainly due to the influence of O3. Here we analyze the contribution of varying concentrations of CO2 and O3 to the temperature trend in the mesosphere. It is important to distinguish between trends on pressure altitudes, zp, and geometrical altitudes, zgeo, where the latter includes the effect of shrinking due to cooling at lower heights. For the period 1961–2009, temperature trends on geometrical and pressure altitudes can differ by as much as −0.9 K/dec in the mesosphere. Temperature trends reach approximately −1.3±0.11 K/dec at zp∼60 km and −1.8±0.18 K/dec at zgeo∼70 km, respectively. CO2 is the main driver of these trends in the mesosphere, whereas O3 contributes approximately one third, both on geometrical and pressure heights. Depending on the time period chosen, linear temperature trends can vary substantially. Altitudes of pressure levels in the mesosphere decrease by up to several hundred meters. We have performed long-term runs with LIMA applying twentieth century reanalysis dating back to 1871. Again, trends are nonuniform with time. Since the late nineteenth century, temperatures in the mesosphere have dropped by approximately 5–7 K on pressure altitudes and up to 10–12 K on geometrical altitudes.

[1] Model results of mesospheric ice layers and background conditions at 69°N from 1961 to 2008 are analyzed. The model nudges to European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts data below ∼45 km. Greenhouse gas concentrations in the mesosphere are kept constant. At polar mesospheric cloud (PMC) altitudes (83 km) temperatures decrease until the mid 1990s by -0.08 K/yr resulting in trends of PMC brightness, occurrence rates, and, to a lesser extent, in PMC altitudes (−0.0166 km/yr). Ice layer trends are consistent with observations by ground-based and satellite instruments. Water vapor increases at PMC heights and decreases above due to increased freeze-drying caused by the temperature trend. Temperature trends in the mesosphere mainly come from shrinking of the stratosphere and from dynamical effects. A solar cycle modulation of H2O is observed in the model consistent with satellite observations. The effect on ice layers is reduced because of redistribution of H2O by freeze-drying. The accidental coincidence of low temperatures and solar cycle minimum in the mid 1990s leads to an overestimation of solar effects on ice layers. A strong correlation between temperatures and PMC altitudes is observed. Applied to historical measurements this gives negligible temperature trends at PMC altitudes (∼0.01–0.02 K/yr). Strong correlations between PMC parameters and background conditions deduced from the model confirm the standard scenario of PMC formation. The PMC sensitivity on temperatures, water vapor, and Ly-α is investigated. PMC heights show little variation with background parameters whereas brightness and occurrence rates show large variations. None of the background parameters can be ignored regarding its influence on ice layers.

A case study of a polar stratospheric cloud (PSC) is described using multiwavelength (355, 532, and 1064 nm) lidar measurements performed at the Arctic Lidar Observatory for Middle Atmosphere Research (ALOMAR) on 6 December 2005. Rotational Raman signals at 529 and 530 nm are used to derive a temperature field within the cloud using the rotational Raman technique (RRT). The PSC size distributions are retrieved between 1500 and 2000 UTC through a combination of statistical filtering and best match approaches. Several PSC types were detected between 22 and 26 km during the measurement session. Liquid ternary aerosols are identified before about 1600 and after 1900 UTC typically; their averaged retrieved size distribution parameters and associated errors at the backscatter peak are: No 1–10 cm3 (50%), rm 0.15 mm (20%), and s 1.2 (15%). A mode of much larger particles is detected between 1600 and 1900 UTC (No 0.04 cm3 (30%), rm 1.50 mm (15%), and s 1.37 (10%). The different PSC types are also identified using standard semiempirical classifications, based on lidar backscatter, temperature, and depolarization. Overall, the characteristics of the retrieved size distributions are consistent with these classifications. They all suggest that these very large particles are certainly nitric acid trihydrate that could have been generated by the strong gravity wave activity visible in the temperature profiles. The results demonstrate that multiwavelength lidar data coupled to both RRT temperatures and our size distribution retrieval can provide useful additional information for identification of PSC types and for direct comparisons with microphysical model simulations.

[1] Noctilucent clouds (NLC) have been observed by a multicolor lidar in northern Norway (69°N, 16°E). From three backscatter coefficients we calculate the parameters of a monomodal particle size distribution. We deduce the mean of the size distribution, the width, and the average number density of the ensemble. Using the backscatter coefficients at the peak of the layer the particle size above ALOMAR is investigated by comparing the observations with model results for spherical and aspherical particles assuming either lognormal or Gaussian size distribution. From the analysis of 645 particle size soundings (142 h of measurements) we find that the average size of all NLC particles above ALOMAR from 1998 to 2005 is 47.7 ± 1 nm for cylinders with Gaussian distribution while it is 39.7 ± 1 nm for the traditional model having spherical particles with lognormal distribution. The distribution width is 16.6 ± 0.5 nm for Gaussian distributed cylinders while the particle number density is 85 ± 6 cm−3. We compare our results in detail to previously published measurements and find a satisfying agreement between the observations taking into account the limitations of previous studies and the different locations of the measurements. From the particle properties we calculate a mean surface density of (4.4 ± 0.2) × 10−8 cm2/cm3 and a mean volume density of (6.0 ± 0.2) × 10−14 cm3/cm3. The mean volume density of faint and strong clouds is 1.6 × 10−14 cm3/cm3 and 7.9 × 10−14 cm3/cm3, respectively. From the volume density we calculate the year-to-year variation of the seasonal mean cloud water content to be about 40% and the average observable NLC ice mass flux through 70°N to be about 11 kilotons.

[1] We discuss spectrally resolved measurements of the light scattering by mesospheric ice particles from lidars and satellite-borne instruments in order to test whether Gaussian particle size distributions predicted by microphysical models are consistent with these observations. This study shows that none of the considered data sets is consistent with this assumption as long as spherical particles are assumed whose scattering properties may be described by Mie scattering theory. In addition, lognormal size distributions fail to explain data sets obtained from the SME and SNOE satellite, again assuming spherical particles described by the Mie theory. However, considering needle- or plate-like spheroid-shaped particles with Gaussian size distributions, we find that particles with axial ratios of ∼0.2 and/or 5.0 allow us to find a consistent set of ice particle distribution parameters. This parameter set can simultaneously explain all considered observations and is in good agreement with microphysical model results. On the basis of these findings we suggest that nonspherical particle scattering theory be considered for the precise analysis of optical soundings of mesospheric ice particles.

From 1997 to 2003, noctilucent clouds (NLC) were observed by lidar above the ALOMAR observatory in Northern Norway (69° N) during a total of 1880measurement hours. This data set contains NLC signatures for 640h, covering all local times, even during the highest solar background conditions. After data limitation imposing a threshold value of 4x10-10m-1sr-1 for the volume backscatter coefficient of the NLC particles, a measure for the cloud brightness, local time dependencies of the NLC occurrence frequency, altitude, and brightness were determined. On average, over the 7years NLC occurred during the whole day and preferably in the early morning hours, with a maximum occurrence frequency of ~40% between 4 and 7LT. Splitting the data into weak and strong clouds yields almost identical amplitudes of diurnal and semidiurnal variations for the occurrence of weak clouds, whereas the strong clouds are dominated by the diurnal variation. NLC occurrence, altitude, as well as brightness, show a remarkable persistence concerning diurnal and semidiurnal variations from 1997 to 2003, suggesting that NLC above ALOMAR are significantly controlled by atmospheric tides. The observed mean anti-phase behavior between cloud altitude and brightness is attributed to a phase shift between the semidiurnal components by ~6h. Investigation of data for each individual year regarding the prevailing oscillation periods of the NLC parameters showed different phase relationships, leading to a complex variability in the cloud parameters.

The effect of mesoscale mountain wave-induced temperature anomalies on the formation potential of polar stratospheric clouds above northern Scandinavia is analyzed with a one-month mesoscale model integration. The simulation results are contrasted with synoptic-scale analyses and compared with remote sensing and in situ observations. The mesoscale mass flux of air parcels with temperatures below the threshold for cloud formation through a control volume is compared with its synoptic-scale counterpart. A classification of the synoptic-scale flow into periods of large and small mountain wave activity in the stratosphere is proposed. The derived classification will be used for a climatology of stratospheric mountain wave activity above Scandinavia.

During the ECOMA/MASS rocket campaign large scale NLC/PMC was observed by satellite, lidar and camera from polar to mid latitudes. We examine the observations from different instruments to investigate the morphology of the cloud. Satellite observations show a planetary wave 2 structure. Lidar observations from Kühlungsborn (54° N), Esrange (68° N) and ALOMAR (69° N) show a highly dynamic NLC layer. Under favorable solar illumination the cloud is also observable by ground-based cameras. The cloud was detected by cameras from Trondheim (63° N), Juliusruh (55° N) and Kühlungsborn. We investigate planetary scale morphology and local scale gravity wave structures, important for the interpretation of the small scale rocket soundings. We compare in detail the lidar observations with the NLC structure observed by the camera in Trondheim. The ALOMAR RMR-lidar observed only a faint NLC during the ECOMA launch window, while the camera in Trondheim showed a strong NLC display in the direction of ALOMAR. Using the high resolution camera observations (t~30 s, Δx

By the beginning of winter 2000/2001, a mysterious stratospheric aerosol layer had been detected by four different Arctic lidar stations. The aerosol layer was observed first on 16 November 2000, at an altitude of about 38 km near Søndre Strømfjord, Greenland (67° N, 51° W) and on 19 November 2000, near Andenes, Norway (69° N, 16° E). Subsequently, in early December 2000, the aerosol layer was observed near Kiruna, Sweden (68° N, 21° E) and Ny-Ålesund, Spitsbergen (79° N, 12° E). No mid-latitude lidar station observed the presence of aerosols in this altitude region. The layer persisted throughout the winter 2000/2001, at least up to 12 February 2001. In November 2000, the backscatter ratio at a wavelength of 532 nm was up to 1.1, with a FWHM of about 2.5 km. By early February 2001, the layer had sedimented from an altitude of 38 km to about 26 km. Measurements at several wavelengths by the ALOMAR and Koldewey lidars indicate the particle size was between 30 and 50 nm. Depolarisation measurements reveal that the particles in the layer are aspherical, hence solid. In the mid-stratosphere, the ambient atmospheric temperature was too high to support in situ formation or existence of cloud particles consisting of ice or an acid-water solution. Furthermore, in the year 2000 there was no volcanic eruption, which could have injected aerosols into the upper stratosphere. Therefore, other origins of the aerosol, such as meteoroid debris, condensed rocket fuel, or aerosols produced under the influence of charged solar particles, will be discussed in the paper. Trajectory calculations illustrate the path of the aerosol cloud within the polar vortex and are used to link the observations at the different lidar sites. From the descent rate of the layer and particle sedimentation rates, the mean down-ward motion of air within the polar vortex was estimated to be about 124 m/d between 35 and 30 km, with higher values at the edge of the vortex.Key words. Atmospheric composition and structure (aerosols and particles; middle atmosphere composition and chemistry) – meteorology and atmospheric dynamics (middle atmosphere dynamics)

[1] It is commonly accepted that the existence of polar mesosphere summer echoes (PMSEs) depends on the presence of charged aerosols since these are comparatively heavy and reduce the diffusion of free electrons due to ambipolar forces. Simple microphysical modeling suggests that this diffusivity reduction is proportional to rA2 (rA = aerosol radius) but only if a significant amount of charges is bound on the aerosols such that NA∣ZA∣/ne > 1.2 (NA = number of aerosols, ZA = aerosol charge, ne = number of free electrons). The fact that the background electron profile frequently shows large depletions (“biteouts”) at PMSE altitudes is taken as a support for this idea since within biteouts a major fraction of free electrons is missing, i.e., bound on aerosols. In this paper, we show from in situ measurements of electron densities and from radar and lidar observations that PMSEs can also exist in regions where only a minor fraction of free electrons is bound on aerosols, i.e., with no biteout and with NA∣ZA∣/ne ≪ 1. We show strong experimental evidence that it is instead the product NA∣ZA∣rA2 that is crucial for the existence of PMSEs. For example, small aerosol charge can be compensated by large aerosol radius. We show that this product replicates the main features of PMSEs, in particular the mean altitude distribution and the altitude of PMSEs in the presence of noctilucent clouds (NLCs). We therefore take this product as a “proxy” for PMSE. The agreement between this proxy and the main characteristics of PMSEs implies that simple microphysical models do not satisfactorily describe PMSE physics and need to be improved. The proxy can easily be used in models of the upper atmosphere to better understand seasonal and geographical variations of PMSEs, for example, the long debated difference between Northern and Southern hemisphere PMSEs.