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On 11 March 2020, the World Health Organization officially declared COVID-19 a pandemic. The new physical distancing rules have had many consequences, some of which are felt throughout the justice system. Courts across the world limited their operations. Nonetheless, given that justice delayed is justice denied, many jurisdictions have turned to technologies for urgent matters. This paper offers an evidence-based comment and caution for lawyers and judges who could be inclined, for concerns such as cost and time saving, to permanently step aside from in-person trials. Using nonverbal communication research, in conjunction with American and Canadian legal principles, we argue that such a decision could harm the integrity of the justice system.

This article discusses a new systems model of dyadic nonverbal interaction. The model builds on earlier theories by integrating partners’ parallel sending and receiving nonverbal processes into a broader, dynamic ecological system. It does so in two ways. First, it moves the level of description beyond the individual level to the coordination of both partners’ contributions to the interaction. Second, it recognizes that the relationships between (a) individuals’ characteristics and processes and (b) the social ecology of the interaction setting are reciprocal and best analyzed at the systems level. Thus, the systems model attempts to describe and explain the dynamic interplay among individual, dyadic, and environmental processes in nonverbal interactions. The potential utility and the limitations of the systems model are discussed and the implications for future research considered. Although the systems model is focused explicitly on face-to-face nonverbal communication, it has considerable relevance for digital communication. Specifically, this model provides a useful framework for examining the social effects of mobile device use and as a template for studying human–robot interactions.

Mobile communication technology plays an increasingly pervasive role in everyday life. This study examined one aspect of this role, specifically, the effects of mobile device use on the micro-interactions of pedestrians as they approached and passed a confederate. Over 400 participants were observed in a 2 (group: mobile device vs. control) × 3 [condition: look-only (L); look and smile (LS); look, smile, and greeting (LSG)] factorial design study measuring participants’ looks, smiles, nods, and greetings toward the confederates. Log-linear analyses of the dependent measures provided qualified support for the predicted decreased responsiveness from mobile device users. Specifically, a group by condition interaction on smiles showed that significantly fewer mobile device users than controls smiled at the confederates in the LSG condition. In addition, a group by sex of participant interaction on greetings indicated that significantly fewer female mobile device users offered greetings than males and females in the other conditions. The processes potentially mediating these effects are discussed and the broader influence of mobile devices on the micro-interactions of pedestrians is considered.

This article offers a brief, selective review of some important trends and issues in nonverbal research over the last 50 years. Although the volume and range of research have increased dramatically over that period, an adequate integration of this extensive body of work is lacking. In response to this concern, the article proposes that nonverbal communication might be framed in terms of an adaptive and efficient system of managing our social worlds. Several basic characteristics of this system are outlined and their utility in organizing and facilitating research is discussed.

In recent years, the decline of behavioral research in personality and social psychology has attracted renewed attention. The decreased incidence of behavioral research over the past few decades has been documented in the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology and in Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin .This article examined whether this trend was also characteristic of two interdisciplinary language and communication journals ( Human Communication Research and the Journal of Language and Social Psychology) that publish experimental research on interpersonal processes. In contrast to the two personality—social psychology journals, the language and communication journals showed no decrease in behavioral studies over the past two decades. Possible reasons for the contrasting trends in the two types of journals are discussed, including the pattern of increasing numbers of studies per article over time in the personality— social psychology journals, but not in the language and communication journals. Finally, the implications of these differences for research strategies are considered.

The present study examined how communication format, specifically computer-mediated communication vs. face-to-face communication, affected distributive and procedural fairness judgments. Specifically, it was expected that procedural information would have a stronger influence on fairness judgments in face-to-face communication than in computer-mediated communication. This hypothesis was not, however, supported by a significant Mode of Communication × Procedure interaction. We also hypothesized that face-to-face communication, compared with computer-mediated communication, would increase the impact of the distributive information on fairness judgments. As predicted, this hypothesis was supported by a significant Mode of Communication × Outcome interaction. The processes potentially mediating these differences, including psychological distance and evaluation apprehension, are discussed.

An integrated, computer-based system was developed to record participants’ continuous judgment changes on a revised form of the Interpersonal Perception Task (IPT-15). Consistent with the considerable research on “thin slice” judgments, the mean latency for greater than chance accuracy confidence was just 16 s (median = 10 s) for the ten one-part scenes on the IPT. There was also a clear and strong linear trend for increasing accuracy confidence across the first 25 s of the ten one-part scenes. For the five-two-part scenes, where comparative judgments were required (e.g., which statement is truthful, which is a lie?), no clear pattern of increasing accuracy confidence was found, with mean scores hovering near chance. The utility of the new system for analyzing the time course of social judgments is discussed and the potential reasons for the contrasting results for the one-part and two-part scenes were examined.

This article examines the declining attention to behavioral research in personality and social psychology and proposes an alternative to the typical laboratory paradigm for studying social behavior. Specifically, the study of “unfocused interactions,” that is, situations where people simply share a common presence without talking to one another (Goffman, 1963), provides an opportunity for analyzing mundane behavior in everyday microinteractions. Because unfocused interactions are ubiquitous, may serve to prime subsequent behavior, and are likely to reflect implicit attitudes and judgments, they are well suited for studying the practical link between social cognition and everyday social behavior. Examples of research on unfocused interactions are described, and their utility in studying interpersonal processes is discussed.

This study examined the microinteractions of pedestrians in Japan and in the United States as they walked past a confederate. Specifically, the effects of culture, condition (avoid, look-only, and look plus smile) and sex of confederate on glances, smiles, nods, and greetings by passing pedestrians were examined in a field study on over 1000 participants. The hypotheses of (1) lower responsiveness in Japanese pedestrians than in American pedestrians and (2) increased responsiveness as a function of condition were supported in a series of log-linear analyses of pedestrian glances, smiles, nods, and greetings. Both of these main effects were, however, qualified by Culture X Condition interactions on smiles, nods, and greetings, with the large condition effects present in the American pedestrians, but absent in the Japanese pedestrians. The results are discussed in terms of the functions of glances, smiles, nods, and greetings in these brief encounters and how differing cultural norms affect Japanese and American responsiveness. Finally, the limitations of this study and the broader utility of this research paradigm are discussed.

This study examined the patterns of recognition and avoidance in pedestrians as they walked past a confederate. The first purpose of the study was to replicate the results of an earlier experiment (Patterson, Webb, & Schwartz, 2002) showing that the addition of a smile from the confederate greatly increased pedestrians’ responsiveness. A second purpose was to determine if confederates’ visibility (wearing sunglasses or not) in these passing encounters would affect pedestrians’ reactions and provide insight regarding the functions involved in these events. Specifically, the effects of condition (avoid, look‐only, and look and smile), sex of confederate, and sunglasses on passing pedestrians were examined in a field study on 183 participants. A log‐linear analysis of the results provided support for the first hypothesis with more glances, smiles, and nods in the look and smile condition than in the avoid and look‐only conditions. The hypotheses that confederates who wore sunglasses would receive fewer glanc...

The articles in this special issue provide important, new insight into the evolutionary roots of expressive behavior. Across the three articles, a strong argument is made for behavioral mimicry, expressivity, and laughter providing adaptive value to ancestral humans that is still reflected in our modern world. The place of an evolutionary analysis in the development of a broader functional approach to nonverbal communication is described and discussed. Each article proposes specific dynamics through which expressive behaviors predispose receivers to respond in a manner benefitting the sender. The mediating mechanisms advanced in the articles are examined more closely and modifications in the proposed processes are considered.

This study examined the patterns of avoidance and recognition in pedestrians as they passed a confederate. Specifically, the effects of condition (avoid, look, and look plus smile) and sex of confederate on passing pedestrians were examined in a field study on over 600 participants. A log-linear analysis of the results showed support for the hypotheses of greater glancing toward the female confederates and greater glancing when the confederates looked and smiled. A Sex of Confederate x Condition interaction qualified these main effects, however, with the female confederates receiving a much higher proportion of glances than men in the look-only condition. Analyses of additional pedestrian responses among those who did glance at the confederates indicated that the look and smile condition produced higher levels of smiling, nodding, and greetings than did the other two conditions. The apparent processes underlying these subtle, brief exchanges are discussed, and the ecology of passing encounters is considered.

This study compared the accuracy and confidence of Japanese and American participants on the Interpersonal Perception Task (IPT-15). The IPT contains 15 brief, real-life scenes on videotape for which there are objectively correct answers about relationships and deception. A total of 344 participants were run in a 2 (Japanese vs. American participants) × 2 (Audiovisual vs. Visual-Only presentation) × 2 (Sex of participant) design. Support was found for the hypothesized greater accuracy of Americans over Japanese, but a Culture × Presentation Modality interaction qualified the main effect of culture. Specifically, Japanese and American participants had virtually identical scores on the IPT-15 in the Visual-Only condition, but Americans' scores increased while Japanese scores decreased in the Audiovisual condition. Analyses of the confidence measures indicated that American participants were much more confident than the Japanese participants, but this difference was larger in the Audiovisual condition than in the Visual-Only condition. In addition, the prediction that women would be more accurate on the IPT, but still report lower confidence than men, was also supported. Finally, Japanese participants with moderate proficiency in spoken English were more accurate on the IPT than those with low English proficiency. The likely processes underlying these differences and the possible directions for future research are discussed.

This study examined the relationship between accuracy and confidence on the Interpersonal Perception Task (IPT-15). This version of the IPT contains 15 brief, real-life scenes on videotape for which there are objectively correct answers to questions about status, intimacy, kinship, competition, and deception. A total of 241 participants were run in a 2 (high vs. low cognitive demand) × 2 (first impression vs. nonverbal cues strategy) × 2 (sex of participant) design. Overall, no significant relationship was found when accuracy scores were correlated with two between-participant measures of confidence. There was, however, a significant relationship within-participants between accuracy and confidence. Thus, participants' rated confidence for each of the 15 scenes did predict accuracy in judgments about the scenes. In addition, a 2 × 2 × 2 ANOVA on participants' transformed accuracy-confidence correlations revealed a small, significant effect of strategy. Specifically, the accuracy-confidence correlations were higher when participants were instructed to attend to specific nonverbal cues in making their judgments than when they were told to rely on their first impressions. Although there were no differences between men and women in either their accuracy or their accuracy-confidence correlations, men rated their confidence significantly higher than did women. The factors affecting the accuracy-confidence relationship and their role in automatic judgments are discussed.

The present study examined the effects of cognitive demand and judgment strategy in performance on the Interpersonal Perception Task (Costanzo & Archer, 1989). The Interpersonal Perception Task (IPT) contains 30 brief, real-life scenes on videotape for which there are objectively correct answers to questions about status, intimacy, kinship, competition, and deception. A total of 142 participants were run in a 2 (high vs. low cognitive demand) × 2 (first impression vs. nonverbal cues strategy) × 2 (audiovisual vs. visual only modality) design. A significant Cognitive Demand × Judgment Strategy interaction supported the hypothesized benefit of a first impression strategy when participants experienced high, rather than low, cognitive demand. In contrast, participants receiving the nonverbal cues strategy had higher accuracy under low, rather than high, cognitive demand. The conditional effects of cognitive demand on person perception are considered and the larger role of cognitive resources in interaction is discussed.

The adverse effects of social anxiety (SA) on thoughts and judgments in interactions are well documented (e.g., Cheek & Melchoir, 1990). The purpose of this study was to determine if the effects of SA on impressions and reported thoughts in interaction might be moderated by the level at which subjects identify their actions in relating to others. Action identification theory (Al-Vallacher & Wegner, 1985, 1987) proposes that the quality of actions is optimal when actors view (1) more difficult activities in specific, how-to, terms and (2) easier activities in more global terms reflecting the purposes of the actions. In 64 opposite-sex dyads, high and low SA actor-subjects were paired with target subjects who were moderate in SA. Half of the actor-subjects received low-level Al instructions and were given specific instructions on how to make a good impression in a brief interaction. The other half of the actor-subjects received the high-level Al instructions to make a good impression. After the interaction, all subjects completed self-ratings, partner-ratings, a recall measure, and a listing of their thoughts. The results replicated the typical negative effects of social anxiety on actor-subjects' cognitions and on judgments by partners. Support for the predicted SA x Al interaction was found in the pattern of reported thoughts. Finally, the processes contributing to these results and their implications are discussed.

The relation between religiosity and helping behavior was examined in 70 college age adults. Religiosity was assessed using the Religious Orientation Scale, which measures whether individuals' religiosity is internally or externally motivated, and by Batson's Quest Scale, which measures the extent that individuals view their religiosity as a quest. Helping behavior was assessed by reports of volunteer work (nonspontaneous) and also by responses to a solicitation from a confederate for help on a task (spontaneous). The results indicated that individuals who adopt an intrinsic religious orientation prefer nonspontaneous helping opportunities, while those who adopt a quest approach prefer spontaneous helping behaviors. Social desirability had little impact on the relation between religiosity and helping behavior.

This article develops a parallel processing model of nonverbal communication that emphasizes the interdependence of behavioral and person perception processes from a functional perspective on social interaction. The form and outcome of the behavioral (encoding) and person perception (decoding) processes are a product of three related elements, including: (1) determinants, (2) the social environment, and (3) cognitive-affective mediators. In this model, the determinants (biology, culture, gender, and personality), in combination with the partner and setting, influence interpersonal expectancies, dispositions, goals, affect, and cognitive resources. In turn, these mediators constrain the attention and cognitive effort applied to behavior management and person perception. In general, fewer cognitive resources and decreased effort will have less effect on the outcome of automatic behavioral (e.g., scripts) and person perception (e.g., impressions based on appearance and nonverbal cues) processes than on more demanding ones. The utility of this theory in integrating behavioral and person perception processes into a single system is discussed.

This article proposes a conceptualframeworkfor analyzing interdependent behavioral and person perception processes in social interaction. First, the separate theoretical approaches to nonverbal exchange (the behavioral side) and to person perception (the social cognition side) of interaction are briefly reviewed Next, the relationship between the behavioral and person perception processes are outlined in an integrative theoreticalframework. Within this framework, the distribution of cognitive resources, in terms of attention and cognitive effort, determines the effectiveness of interactive behavior and the nature of impressions formed about apartner Finally, an example of a researchparadigmfor studying the behavior-person perception interface is described and preliminary results reported.

WOS: 000235484300004, PubMed ID: 20976033, This article reports two worldwide studies of stereotypes about liars. These studies are carried out in 75 different countries and 43 different languages. In Study 1, participants respond to the open-ended question "How can you tell when people are lying?" In Study 2, participants complete a questionnaire about lying. These two studies reveal a dominant pan-cultural stereotype: that liars avert gaze. The authors identify other common beliefs and offer a social control interpretation., NICHD NIH HHSUnited States Department of Health & Human ServicesNational Institutes of Health (NIH) - USANIH Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health & Human Development (NICHD) [R01 HD048962-05, R01 HD048962]

This article examines the effect of students’ physical attractiveness on a variety of judgments made in educational settings. This review discusses the following issues: (a) methodology for studying physical attractiveness in the classroom; (b) teacher judgments, expectations, and impressions of physically attractive students; and (c) the influence of moderator variables such as gender, race, conduct, and physical attractiveness effects. A descriptive and a meta-analytic review of the research indicated that physically attractive students are judged usually more favorably by teachers in a number of dimensions including intelligence, academic potential, grades, and various social skills. The potential influence of moderator variables—such as, student gender, race, and past performance on the physical attractiveness bias—is also examined. Finally, the possible mechanisms responsible for the attractiveness effect and the limitations of this research are discussed.

The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of cognitive demand on interpersonal sensitivity in initial interactions between unacquainted subjects. It was hypothesized that the increased cognitive demand created by initiating an unfavorable (vs. favorable) impression would lead to decreased accuracy in inferences made about an interaction partner. Forty-six pairs of subjects were run in a 2 (favorable or unfavorable impression) × 2 (male dyad or female dyad) factorial design. One member of each subject pair was randomly assigned the perceiver role and given the impression-management instructions. When the interaction was finished, subjects rated themselves and their partner on seven dimensions (e.g., comfortable, friendly, dominant, etc.). Subjects also rated how they thought their partners perceived them on these same dimensions. Two accuracy scores were determined within pairs by correlating: (a) the perceiver’s ratings of the target with the target’s rating of self (direct perspective), and (b) the perceiver’s rating of “my partner thought I felt” with the target’s rating of the perceiver (meta-perspective). The hypothesis was supported in that favorable impression perceivers were significantly more accurate on the meta-perspective judgments than were the unfavorable impression perceivers. In addition, the favorable impression perceivers recalled more descriptive characteristics of the targets than did the unfavorable impression perceivers. The results of the study indicate that a more difficult, impression-management task reduced accuracy in interpersonal perception.

This study examined the effects of interpersonal expectancies and social anxiety on the anticipation of interaction. Sixty female subjects were tested in a 2 (positive vs. negative interpersonal expectancy) × 2 (high vs. low social anxiety) design. The results indicated mixed support for the hypothesized efects of interpersonal expectancies and social anxiety, but no expectancy × social anxiety effect. Specifically, a negative interpersonal expectancy, compared to a positive one, produced a slower pulse rate recovery, but no differences in rated impressions and thoughts and feelings. High anxious subjects rated themselves and the anticipation period more negatively and reported fewer positive and neutral miscellaneous thoughts and feelings than did the low anxious subjects.

The authors assessed the impact that social value orientations--prosocial (i.e., concerned about outcomes for both oneself and others) versus proself (i.e., concerned about one's own outcome only)--had on fairness judgments in a non-negotiation setting. The results indicated that prosocials generally formed fairness judgments in a manner suggested by equity theory: Given the same input as a comparison other, they saw an equal outcome as fairer than a favorable or unfavorable outcome. The fairness determinations of proselfs, however, tended to follow the tenets of self-interest theory: Given the same input as a comparison other, they saw a favorable outcome as fairer than an unfavorable outcome. Contrary to self-interest theory, proselfs did not find a favorable outcome fairer than an equal outcome. These findings indicate that social value orientations differentially affect the evaluation of outcome information in the formation of fairness judgments.

Q1: Dr. Patterson, your research finds cultural differences in civil (in)attention in one particular context. What does this suggest about the need to consider the role of varied contexts in studying nonverbal behavior within a global context? The long history of research in social psychology clearly emphasizes the importance of situations or contexts in determining social behavior and social judgments. In fact, people from Asian and more collectivistic cultures seem to have a clearer appreciation of the role of situations in shaping behavior, compared to people from Western and more individualistic cultures. This is specifically reflected in Asians showing less of the correspondence bias in making attributions about the behavior of others. That is, Asians are typically less likely to make the automatic dispositional inference (internal attribution) for another person’s behavior and are more likely to make a situational inference (external attribution) than are Westerners. We did not specifically examine different types of contexts, such as the home or work, in studying the subtle behaviors of Japanese and American pedestrians. Thus, we do not have data on cultural differences across contexts. Nevertheless, the minimal responsiveness of Japanese pedestrians as they walked past our confederates was consistent with other research pointing to norms of reserve, caution, and saving face in relating to outgroup individuals. In contrast, this kind of behavioral or expressive restraint may be unnecessary, and even inappropriate, in interactions with other members of one’s own ingroup. Although we do not have direct evidence, it seems likely that comparable contrasting contexts would not have as large an effect on Americans. On a more general level, this suggests that the effects of culture on social behavior may well be qualified by context, that is, culture x context (situation) interactions might be common. Thus, we might find cultural differences in one kind of context, but not in another. As a result we should be cautious in assuming broad cultural differences on the basis of results from a single specific context.

may not be the dominant dynamic described by TickleDegnen and Rosenthal. The discourse around rapport may be once again illuminating here. Several studies in the clinical literature make reference to something called, "positive rapport." The implication is that there might be some other kind. In addition, the quote from Joyce Carol Oates (1965) with which I began this commentary alludes to the fact that there can be such a thing as too much involvement. Before we can rest easy that we have gotten to the heart of what is notable about the nature of rapport, it behooves us to explore these possibilities. Rapport is a unique interpersonal dynamic and one that deserves the attention that it is finally getting.

Although both Machiavellianism (Christie & Geis, 1970) and self-monitoring (Snyder, 1974) are characterized by the use of effective impression management, previous research has indicated that the scales measuring the two traits are not significantly correlated. One explanation for the divergence of these dimensions is that Machiavellianism is associated with a self-oriented, “assimilative” form of impression management, whereas self-monitoring is associated with an other-oriented, “accommodative” form of impression management (Barnes & Ickes, 1979). This explanation suggested the hypothesis that Machiavellianism would be associated in dyadic conversations with the use of first-person singular pronouns at the expense of second- and third-person pronouns, whereas self-monitoring would be related to the use of second- and third-person pronouns at the expense of first-person singular pronouns. By analyzing the conversations occurring in 40 unstructured dyadic interactions, we obtained support for these hypoth...

The effects of two intimacy manipulations, 80% eye contact (EC) and combined lean, touch, 50% eye contact (LT), were examined in a bogus waiting period involving a male confederate-male subject pairing. Hypothesized arousal increase was found only for the LT manipulation when it occurred later, rather than earlier, in the waiting period. Associated with that increased arousal were weak tendencies for increased eye contact and talking. These results offered limited support for the arousal model of interpersonal intimacy (Patterson, 1976). However, it also appeared that the directing effect of the specific social context qualified the impact and meaning of the confederate's high intimacy.

Summary Two studies, one in the laboratory (N = 48 male and female undergraduates) and one in the field (N = 28 adult pairs), were undertaken to test the predictions of Argyle and Dean's equilibrium theory of nonverbal intimacy. Seating distance was manipulated in the laboratory as a function of the S's own feeling of comfort. The results indicated that closer approaches produced a reduction of eye contact with an interviewer and less directly confronting body orientations, but no changes in body lean. A second study was conducted in the field to eliminate a potential artifact in the distance-body orientation relationship in the first study. In that study, pairs of Ss, observed in standing interactions, also chose less directly confronting orientations with closer approaches. These results, generally supportive of equilibrium theory, are discussed primarily in terms of the role of affect in the equilibrium process.

The effects of seating arrangement, activity, and sex differences were examined in six person groups required to wait under high density conditions. Groups in the circle arrangement tended to rate the room more confining than those in the L-shape arrangement. Predicted arrangement x sex composition interactions were supported by differences in self and room ratings. The clearest contrast appeared in the positive reactions to the more intimate, circle arrangement by females waiting with other females compared to the more negative reactions to the circle arrangement by females in the mixed sex groups. The relevance of these results were discussed in terms of an intimacy violation model of crowding.

This study investigated the effects of touch on compliance to a help request. The experimenter's initiation of touch during the request did increase compliance as measured by time spent scoring bogus personality inventories. The hypothesized role of attraction in mediating the touch-compliance link was not supported. Instead, touch may have served to indicate status or power differences that influenced subjects to comply. A sex of subject × sex of experimenter interaction was manifested in female subjects complying more to female experimenters than did subjects in any other sex pairing.

While much research on nonverbal components of social interaction effectively employs film or videotape recording, a variety of circumstances preclude their use. For those situations that require direct observation of ongoing interactions, a simple technique is proposed that facilitates the reliable judgment of diverse behaviors on a time-sampling basis. This particular technique involves the tape-recorded cuing of exact observation times and instructions, which direct the observer's visual attention to the critical behaviors of specific subjects. The implementation of this technique in one setting and its potential application are briefly discussed.

Results supportive of Argyle and Dean's (1965) equilibri um theory prediction, relating eye contact and interpersonal distance, have been questioned on methodological grounds. Specifically, the criticism suggests that eye contact only appears to increase with in creased distance between interacting pairs because the observer dis tance also increases and results in overestimation due to decreased discriminability. An evaluation of the evidence on the measurement artifact itself suggests that it is a concern only in contrived set tings involving programmed directional gaze and not in situations involving visual interaction between naive subjects.

The purpose of this paper is to offer an elaboration of an earlier classification of functions of nonverbal involvement (Patterson, 1982, 1983). Specifically, two additional functions of nonverbal involvement, the presentational function and the affect-management function are proposed and discussed. The presentational function is manifested in the purposeful involvement patterns with partners that are designed to create an identity or image, either at the individual or dyadic level. The affect-management function is manifested when intense affect produces adjustments in nonverbal involvement that either serves to control the negative affect (fear, shame) or maximizes the positive affect (happiness, joy). The two functions are discussed in terms of the circumstances that contribute to their emergence in social settings.

In recent years a considerable amount of research on nonverbal behavior has focused on identifying patterns of exchange in the component behaviors of interpersonal intimacy. The rapidly developing empirical research, occasionally giving hope for some convergence in the results, has precipitated efforts at explaining the processes underlying the exchange of intimacy. This paper attempts to analyze issues surrounding two of the more promising mediators of intimacy exchange—arousal change and cognitive labeling. This speculative discussion is offered as a means of stimulating several specific and empirically testable questions which may promote our understanding of the intimacy exchange process.

It is proposed that there are two basic interaction strategies by means of which a perceiver's preinteraction impression of a target person can mediate both the perceiver's and the target's subsequent interaction behavior. The first is the “reciprocity strategy” that underlies the process of behavioral confirmation (i.e., the “self-fulfilling prophecy”) described by various theorists; the second is the “compensation strategy” suggested by the results of studies by Bond (1972) and Swann and Snyder (1980). The results of Experiment 1 provided consistent behavioral and self-report evidence for the operation of each of these strategies in the context of unstructured, face-to-face interactions. The data converged to suggest that the creation in one dyad member of a “friendly” preinteraction expectancy led to the adoption of the reciprocity strategy, whereas the creation of an “unfriendly” expectancy led to the adoption of the compensation strategy, and that in each case the behavior of both perceivers and targ...

A theoretical model designed to explain and predict reactive changes in the expression of interpersonal intimacy is presented. The model basically proposes that in an interaction, sufficient changes in one person's intimacy behaviors (e.g., interpersonal distance, eye contact, touch) precipitate arousal change in the other person. Depending upon the type of relationship, the setting, and other factors, this arousal change may be labeled either a positive or negative emotional state. The model predicts that positively labeled states facilitate reciprocal or enhancing reactions to the other person's intimacy changes, while negatively labeled states facilitate compensatory reactions. Applications and limitations of the model are discussed. Research into the role of nonverbal communication in social interaction has increased rapidly over the last several years. Although there is considerable disagreement regarding the use of the label communication to describe these behaviors (see Ekman & Friesen, 1969; Wiener, Devoe, Rubinow, & Geller, 1972), there is little doubt that a wide variety of nonverbal behaviors is important in the interaction process. Argyle and Dean (196S) have suggested that one set of these behaviors, primarily nonverbal and including interpersonal distance, eye contact, leaning, smiling, and intimacy of topic, is critical in indicating interpersonal intimacy. Mehrabian (1969) has discussed many of the same behaviors in a review and has used the label immediacy to refer to a limited number of dimensions including touch, distance, eye contact, body lean, and body orientation. Mehrabian cited considerable evidence indicating that increased immediacy in one or more of these dimensions is related to a more positive attitude toward another. Thus, both Argyle and Dean (1965) and Mehrabian (1969) seem to be describing a common process in postulating a direct relationship between in

This paper provides a broad review and evaluation of the research on nonverbal exchange. The development of theoretical approaches to this research is traced over time and discussed. Relative strengths and weaknesses of past and present models are analyzed. Finally, specific recommendations are made for future research that will, we hope, extend our understanding of nonverbal exchange and its basic role in social interaction.

The stability of the immediacy behaviors of approach distance, eye contact, approach orientation, and body lean was examined across two interviews over a 25 min and a 1-week interval. Stability coefficients were similarly high between the sessions for each interval. General support was found for the presence of compensatory relationships between approach distance and eye contact and between approach distance and approach orientation. A bimodal distribution of approach distances, found in both studies, included a substantial intermediate range which was not used by any of the subjects. Evidence from personality data and self-ratings suggested that subjects who remained more distant were more anxious than those who approached closer.

Summary Impression formation was examined as a function of interpersonal physical distance in an interview. It was predicted that a confederate would be rated less socially active as the distance between him and the subject increased. The hypothesis was supported by a significant negative linear trend in the composite ratings of friendliness, aggressiveness, extraversion, and dominance A variation in this trend, indicating that confederates seated closest to the subject were seen as less socially active, was explained in terms of compensatory behaviors minimizing the effect of close physical proximity