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The aim of this study was to analyze the relationship between body shame and participation in sexting among adolescents by examining the mediational roles of social physique anxiety and misuse of social networking sites (SNSs). Four hundred thirty-nine adolescents completed self-report measures for assessing their levels of body shame, social physique anxiety, SNS addiction symptoms, and sexting participation. Female adolescents reported higher scores in body shame, social physique anxiety, and SNS addiction symptoms, whereas male adolescents reported higher participation in sexting behaviors. In addition, gender did not moderate the relationship between body shame and higher sexting behaviors. Finally, the results showed an indirect (but not a direct) association between body shame and sexting behaviors through social physique anxiety and SNS addiction symptoms. These findings provide empirical evidence for the development of sexting prevention programs that are focused on body acceptance with the aim of reducing body shame, social physique anxiety, and SNS addiction.

This experiment explored behavioral consequences of interpersonal objectification. In an actual interaction with an objectifying man, women (N = 91) perceived the interaction as less pleasant, reducing the amount of time they spent interacting with the male objectifier compared to a neutral interaction. Moreover, the effect of the objectifying behavior on women’s unpleasant perceptions of the interaction was mediated by the feeling of being treated as a sex object. This work demonstrates the consequences of an objectifying interaction at an interpersonal level.

espanolRESUMEN Con las tecnologias de la informacion y la comunicacion (TIC) y su influencia en la socializacion, los jovenes han incorporado un instrumento mas para ejercer comportamientos controladores en sus relaciones de pareja. Esta investigacion pretende analizar la influencia de algunas variables que afectan a la percepcion social de estos comportamientos controladores, como el rol del participante en el escenario (protagonista vs. observador u observadora) y el medio de control utilizado (cara a cara vs. WhatsApp), considerando el efecto de las variables ideologicas: aceptabilidad de la violencia, sexismo y mitos del amor romantico. Se llevaron a cabo dos estudios: un primer estudio con mujeres (n = 224) y uno segundo con hombres (n = 120), todos ellos estudiantes universitarios. Los principales resultados indicaron que tanto mujeres como hombres observan comportamientos controladores en otras parejas de su edad, aunque pocos reconocen sufrir o ejercer estos comportamientos en sus relaciones. Asimismo, se encuentra que el rol que se ocupa en el escenario y las variables ideologicas (sexismo ambivalente, aceptabilidad de la violencia y mitos sobre el amor romantico) influyen en la percepcion social de la violencia en la pareja, si bien no se encontro influencia del medio de control. Estos hallazgos constituyen una aportacion a la literatura existente, poniendo en evidencia que los comportamientos controladores ejercidos a traves de los medios tecnologicos son aceptados y normalizados entre los jovenes y las jovenes. Asimismo, proporciona datos novedosos sobre la percepcion social que esta poblacion tiene de los comportamientos controladores en las relaciones en funcion de si se adopta el rol de observador o de protagonista de la situacion violenta. EnglishABSTRACT Young people have incorporated information and communication technology (ICT) and its influence on socialization as a new instrument to exercise controlling behaviors in their relationships. The present research aims to analyse the influence of some variables that affect social perception of those controlling behaviors, such as the adopted role on the scene (i.e., protagonist vs. observer) and means of control that is used (i.e., face-to-face vs. WhatsApp) while considering the effect of attitudinal variables: acceptability of intimate partner violence against women (IPVAW), ambivalent sexism, and myths about romantic love. Two studies were implemented: Study 1 included women (n = 224) and Study 2 included men (n = 120), all of them college students. The main results revealed that both women and men perceive controlling behaviors amongst other peer couples; however, few of them recognize suffering or the exercise of these behaviors within their relationships. In addition, data pointed out the adopted role on the scene and the ideological variables (ambivalent sexism, acceptability of IPVAW, and myths about romantic love) that influenced social perception of dating violence; however, there was no influence of means of control. This research contributes to the previous literature, evidencing that controlling behaviors through technological means are accepted and normalized among young people. Additionally, it shows novel data about young people's social perception of controlling behaviors in their relationships, depending on whether they adopt the role of observer or the role of protagonist in a violent situation.

Prior research indicated that lack of power leads to emotional suppression and low emotional expression during conflicts among strangers. However, little is known about how power affects emotional inhibition in close relationships, where partners are highly interdependent, and achieving one’s goals greatly depends on their partner’s cooperation. In three studies among romantic couples (total N = 994), we examined whether (a) power is related to emotional inhibition during conflicts, (b) perceived partner responsiveness moderates this effect and, (c) which conflict-resolution responses are subsequently enacted. Findings consistently showed that powerless individuals were more likely to inhibit their emotions and consequently to use passive responses during conflicts. However, this only occurred when they perceived lack of responsiveness from their partner. If the partner was perceived as responsive (i.e., showed care, validation, and understanding), power was not related to emotional inhibition and passive resolutions. The importance of partner’s responses in relation to power asymmetry is discussed.

Prior research has indicated that the people one loves the most, such as their romantic partners, ironically, are also the people toward whom they often direct destructive behaviors in times of conflict, and such destructive responses become one of the most challenging relationship problems. Identifying the conditions that promote destructive (vs. constructive) conflict-resolution strategies is a crucial gap requiring study to help individuals build healthier and happier relationships. Across three studies (total N = 728), we examined whether (a) power is related to direct destructive (vs. constructive) responses during romantic conflicts; (b) this effect was moderated by the seriousness of the conflict and the relationship’s inclusiveness. In Study 1, participants involved in romantic relationships completed scales assessing interpersonal power, the conflict’s seriousness, their relationship’s inclusiveness, and conflict-resolution responses. In Studies 2-3, the participants were randomly assigned to complete an essay in which the conflict’s seriousness and power were experimentally manipulated. Findings from hierarchical regression analyses consistently showed that power led to destructive (and lower constructive) responses. However, this only occurred when the participants faced severe conflicts and their partner was not central to their self-concept. An internal meta-analysis of the studies confirmed the reliability and significance of these relationships; |r’s| =.13-37. Together, these results support the proposition that power asymmetries can threaten relationships by driving destructive responses during romantic conflicts, and untangle the conditions under which this happens. The conflict’s seriousness and the inclusiveness of the relationship may be considered to provide skills that help individuals navigate their relationships’ life challenges., Spanish Government FPU16/03023, Spanish Ministerio de Industria, Economía y Competitividad [MINECO/AEI/FEDER/UE] PSI-2017-83966-R PSI2017-84703-R

Sexual coercion is one of the most frequent manifestations of sexual aggression that occurs within intimate relationships. The current research examined the role of previous perpetration of sexual coercion toward an intimate partner on men’s proclivity toward partner sexual assault and their cognitive and emotional reactions to a sexual assault scenario. Male college students with (n = 45) and without (n = 52) self-reported previous sexual coercion perpetration watched a video clip showing an unwanted sexual interaction that included verbal and physical tactics used by the perpetrator, and they indicated the point at which they would stop acting like the man (response latency), their degree of identification with the perpetrator, their attributions of responsibility to victim and perpetrator, and their emotional state. Results indicated that prior sexual coercion perpetrators scored higher on sexual assault proclivity and reported lower responsibility attributed to the perpetrator than did nonperpetrators. No differences were found in attributed victim’s responsibility and emotional reactions. Furthermore, the increase in severity of the sexual aggression situation resulted in lower identification with the man, higher responsibility toward him, and more negative emotions in general. Findings could have implications for both the assessment of individual risk of future sexual assault and primary prevention efforts. This research was supported by a grant from the Spanish Ministry of Education to the first author [Ref.FPU14-02905], and the financing provided by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness [Ref.PSI2017-84703-R; Ref. PSI-2017-83966-R (MINECO/AEI/FEDER/UE)].

Authors have empirically evidenced that cultural stereotypes influence gender-typed behavior. With the present work, we have added to this literature by demonstrating that gender roles can explain sex differences in risk-taking, a stereotypically masculine domain. Our aim was to replicate previous findings and to analyze what variables affect women making risky decisions in the social domain. A sample composed of 417 Spanish participants (281 women and 136 men), between 17 and 30 years old (M = 22.34, SD = 3.01), answered a set of self-report measures referring to femininity, fear of negative evaluation, and social risk-taking. According to the main results, sex indirectly linked to risk-taking in the social domain, through femininity and fear of negative evaluation. Specifically, women (vs. men) self-reported higher feminine traits, which were associated with increased fear of negative evaluation, which in turn was associated with less risky decisions in the social domain. Thus, we have showed the relationship between gender roles and women’s behaviors in a stereotypically masculine domain (risk-taking). Our findings highlight the necessity of considering a gender-based perspective in the field of risk-taking, showing that not all women make more risky decisions in the social domain., Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness (MINECO/AEI/FEDER, UE) PSI-2017-84703-R

Infidelity occurs in adult romantic relationships quite often; however, little is known about this relational phenomenon in the adolescent stage, despite its being a surprisingly common behavior. Through a correlational study, we set out to examine how the various documented motivations to engage in an act of infidelity are associated with negative emotional responses, self-esteem, and psychological well-being. In a sample of Spanish adolescents (N = 346 [Mage = 15.71, SD = 1.27; range from 13 to 19]), results showed that committing an act of infidelity due to sexual or emotional dissatisfaction (vs. neglect and anger) is related to higher levels of psychological well-being by undermining negative affect, thereby increasing the levels of self-esteem. The discussion of the findings emphasizes that infidelity could favor adolescents’ personal growth, because of the need to explore new sensations and feelings that arise during this period. This paper was made possible thanks to the financing provided by the Spanish Ministry of Economy, Industry and Competitiveness for the R&D project “New forms of Gender Violence: Risks and protective factors for psychosocial well-being [PSI2017-84703-R (MINECO/AEI/FEDER/UE)]”.

Intimate partner sexual violence has countless consequences for women suffering it. This research analyse the effect of the type of sexual coercion tactic and partner dependence on both the attribution of responsibility and the probability of leaving a relationship. In Study 1, six scenarios for different sexual tactics were presented (coaxing, coercion, and aggression) to 5 experts in order to select those with better evidence of content validity regarding the construct evaluated. In Study 2, the three selected scenarios were presented to 304 Spanish participants from the general population, analysing the effect of the type of tactic and dependence on attributed responsibility and the probability of leaving a relationship. Results showed that in the sexual aggression scenario, participants assigned the highest responsibility to the aggressorand showed the strongest likelihood of leaving the relationship. Further, results revealed that in the coaxing scenario, dependence had an indirect effect on the probability of leaving the relationship through a lower responsibility attributed to the aggressor. As a conclusion, this study emphasises the importance of the sexual tactic used by aggressors in individuals' perception about sexual coercion, contributing to increasing the visibility of this unacceptable action, especially in its more subtle and normalised form.

Resumen Dejar una relación de pareja es una de las decisiones más difíciles que las personas tienen que tomar, en ocasiones, en algún momento de su vida. Esta investigación pretende contribuir a la comprensión del proceso implicado en esta toma de decisión a través de 2 estudios. En el primero participaron 265 personas de población general, examinándose los diferentes tipos de transgresiones (conflictos) que llevarían a las personas a dejar la relación, la gravedad y las diferencias de género en dichas transgresiones. En el segundo estudio (109 participantes de población general) se analiza la influencia de la gravedad de la transgresión, la satisfacción y el compromiso en la probabilidad de dejar la relación a través de la huida. Los resultados del primer estudio mostraron que la infidelidad es la transgresión de mayor gravedad y la mentira, la más leve. Además, las mujeres perciben las transgresiones como más graves que los hombres. En el segundo estudio se comprueba que el compromiso media la relación entre satisfacción y probabilidad de dejar la relación ante una transgresión leve (vs. grave). Los resultados resaltan la relevancia que la gravedad de la transgresión, el compromiso y la satisfacción tienen en la toma de decisión de dejar la relación de pareja o mantenerse en ella.

Envy strongly influences many spheres of social life. However, the psychology of envy is still in its infancy. A theoretical and empirical examination of envy was performed with a psychosocial focus via two exploratory studies. In Study 1 (N = 141), participants were asked to describe an event in which they experienced envy, indicating which people they envied and the reasons for that envy. In Study 2 (N = 311), the relationship between envy and several psychosocial variables such as self-efficacy, self-esteem and perceived control were analysed, as well as the predisposition to express aggressive behaviours in response to this emotion. The results of Study 1 revealed that friends were the most envied people, and abilities or personal skills were the most frequent sources of envy. Likewise, the results of Study 2 showed that self-efficacy, self-esteem and perceived control predicted envy, which in turn predicted the expression of verbal aggressive behaviours.

Conflicts that arise in romantic relationships can be one of the greatest causes of suffering when they are not faced appropriately. Through two studies, this research analyses the differential effect of gender and the influence of emotional intelligence on conflict-facing responses, as well as their consequences at an individual and relationship level. In Study 1, we examined the existence of gender differences during conflicts through four independent samples of subjects (N = 727). After meta-analysing the results, we observed that women responded more expressively and loyally to conflict, while men had a more negligent response. In our observations in Study 2 (N = 185), emotional intelligence became a key factor in promoting a constructive response to face conflicts that is adopted by both women and men. Moreover, emotional intelligence finally favours their psychological well-being and satisfaction with the relationship. This research shows the importance of emotional skills in confronting conflicts that originate in intimate contexts such as romantic relationships and their consequences to both men and women., Los conflictos que surgen en las relaciones de pareja pueden ser una de las mayores causas de sufrimiento cuando no se afrontan idóneamente. A través de dos estudios, esta investigación analiza el efecto diferencial del género así como la influencia de la inteligencia emocional en el afrontamiento de los conflictos de pareja y sus consecuencias a nivel individual y relacional. En el estudio 1 se examina la existencia de diferencias de género en el afrontamiento de conflictos a través de 4 muestras independientes de sujetos (N = 727). Tras metaanalizar los resultados de las mismas se observa que las mujeres responden de manera más expresiva y leal ante los conflictos, mientras que los hombres emplean una respuesta más negligente. En el estudio 2 (N = 185) se comprueba como la inteligencia emocional se convierte en un factor clave al promover el afrontamiento constructivo de conflictos adoptado tanto por mujeres como por hombres, lo que favorece tanto su bienestar psicológico como la satisfacción con la relación. Esta investigación muestra la importancia de las habilidades emocionales ante los conflictos que se originan en los contextos más íntimos, como son las relaciones de pareja, y sus consecuencias tanto en hombres como en mujeres., This paper was made possible thanks to the financing provided by the Spanish Ministry of Education, Culture, and Sports through a university teaching training grant (FPU16/03023), and by the projects “Macrosocial realities (economic crisis and social class) and psychosocial processes: Trust, welfare, altruism, and politics” (Ref. PSI-2017- 83966-R) (MINECO/AEI/FEDER/UE) and “New ways of gender violence: Risk and protector factors for psychosocial well-being” (Ref. PSI2017-84703-R) (MINECO/AEI/FEDER/UE).

Interpersonal transgressions often threaten the stability of the relationship. Within the scope of romantic relationships, physical violence and sexual infidelity have been considered the most difficult transgressions to forgive. Similarly, two variables considered relevant for forgiveness within the context of the couple are partner-specific dependency and the guilt experienced by the offended person. In that way, this research aims to approach the understanding of the forgiveness process of such transgressions. To this end, an experimental study was designed (N= 173 university women;Mage= 21.36,SD= 2.83), by which three indicators of forgiveness corresponding to the Transgression-Related Interpersonal Motivations Scale–18–Item Form (TRIM–18; “Revenge”, “Avoidance” and “Benevolence”), partner-specific dependency and sense of guilt of the offended person were examined in the face of the transgressions of physical violence and sexual infidelity. Results revealed that violence (vs. infidelity) is less forgiven (higher “Revenge”,p= .017, ηp2= .034). In addition, the results showed that high partner-specific dependency leads to further guilt which, in turn, leads to greater forgiveness towards the partner (less “Avoidance”,CIE= –.094,SE= .042, 95% CI [–.201, –.029]; and higher “Benevolence”,CIE= .080,SE= .037, 95% CI [.024, .173]) in light of violence (vs. infidelity). Last but not least, the previous findings and their possible implications for romantic relationships are discussed.

Sexual objectification as a form of sexist discrimination accounts for the higher prevalence of psychological problems among women. More specifically, sexual objectification manifests itself in different ways with different intensities, in turn affecting women’s psychological well-being differently. On one hand, experiences of body evaluation are more subtle and work by perpetuating sexist attitudes among women themselves. On the other hand, more explicit forms of sexual objectification (unwanted explicit sexual advances) are linked to higher levels of anxiety and lower levels of self-esteem. The first study, on a sample of 343 Spanish women, aims to analyze the consequences of different forms of sexual objectification on women’s psychological well-being and the effect of sexism and enjoyment of objectification on these consequences. The second study, on a sample of 144 Spanish women, focuses on analyzing the ideological variables that have an effect on response to acts of sexist discrimination. Both studies reveal the significance of the more subtle experiences of sexual objectification as a mechanism that plays a part in keeping women in a subordinate position, where they end up feeling that this process is positive or pleasing.

Research has shown that the perception of sexual harassment depends on factors such as gender, the situational context, the type of harassment, the ideology of the perceiver, the physical attractiveness of the harasser and victim and the relationship between them. This study focuses on examining the influence of physical attractiveness in the perception of a situation like sexual harassment. Through a questionnaire, 205 participants read a scenario in which a male worker (attractive vs. unattractive) engaged in gender harassment against a female colleague (attractive vs. unattractive). The participants then answered the measurements on the perception of harassment, responsibility, motivation and ideology. The main results were that the situation was more often perceived as sexual harassment when the victim of the harassment was physically attractive than when she was unattractive. Furthermore, the higher the participants’ acceptance of harassment myths the more they tended to blame the victim. We ...

Despite the fact that literature regarding the implications of envy in the work environment has generated growing interest in recent years, the role of malicious and benign envy in the workplace has scarcely been studied. Therefore, the present study, using an experimental design, N = 213 (140 female and 73 male; Mage = 31.05, SD = 10.01; range from 18 to 68), aims to examine the effects of malicious (vs. benign) envy on perceived injustice, negative emotions, and the individual tendency to express counterproductive work behaviors. The results obtained showed that the mere activation of malicious envy (vs. benign envy) leads to an increased perceived injustice (p < .001, ηp2= .15), and to higher levels of negative emotions (p < .001, ηp2= .18) and counterproductive (harmful) behaviors toward the envied co-worker (p < .001, ηp2= .16). Additionally, we found that perceptions of injustice and negative emotions mediated the effect of malicious (vs. benign) envy on the inclination to express counterproductive work behaviors (Indirect Effect (IE) = .227, SE = .064, 95% CI [.127, .386]. Finally, these findings and their possible implications are discussed.

Current research has postulated that sexual harassment is one of the most serious social problems. Perceptions of sexual harassment vary according to some factors: gender, context, and perceiver’s ideology. The strategies most commonly used by women to cope with harassment range from avoiding or ignoring the harasser to confronting the harasser or reporting the incident. The aim of this study was to explore women’s perception of sexual harassment, and to assess the implications of different victim responses to harassment. A total of 138 women were administered a questionnaire where the type of harassment, and victim response were manipulated. Moreover, the influence of ideological variables (i.e. ambivalent sexism and the acceptance of myths of sexual harassment) on perception was assessed. Results show perception of sexual harassment was lower in gender harassment than in unwanted sexual attention and participants believed women who confronted their harasser would be evaluated negatively by men. Furthermore, effects of ideology on perception of harassment were found. The results underscore the complexities involved in defining certain behaviours as harassment, and the implications of different victim responses to harassment.

Previous studies have documented links between sub-clinical narcissism and the active pursuit of short-term mating strategies (e.g., unrestricted sociosexuality, marital infidelity, mate poaching). Nearly all of these investigations have relied solely on samples from Western cultures. In the current study, responsesfrom a cross-cultural survey of 30,470 people across 53 nations spanning 11 world regions (North America, Central/South America, Northern Europe, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, Southern Europe, Middle East, Africa, Oceania, Southeast Asia, and East Asia) were used to evaluate whether narcissism (as measured by the Narcissistic Personality Inventory; NPI) was universally associated with short-term mating. Results revealed narcissism scores (including two broad factors and seven traditional facets as measured by the NPI) were functionally equivalent across cultures, reliably associating with key sexual outcomes (e.g., more active pursuit of shortterm mating, intimate partner violence, and sexual aggression) and sex-related personality traits (e.g., higher extraversion and openness to experience). Whereas some features of personality (e.g., subjective well-being) were universally associated with socially adaptive facets of Narcissism (e.g., self-sufficiency), most indicators of short-term mating (e.g., unrestricted sociosexuality and marital infidelity) were universally associated with the socially maladaptive facets of narcissism (e.g., exploitativeness). Discussion addresses limitations of these cross-culturally universal findings and presents suggestions for future research into revealing the precise psychological features of narcissism that facilitate the strategic pursuit of short-term mating. Creative Commons CC-BY-SA licence.

Sexual harassment is one of the most widespread forms of gender violence. Perceptions of sexual harassment depend on gender, context, the perceivers’ ideology, and a host of other factors. Research has underscored the importance of coping strategies in raising a victim's self-confidence by making her feel that she plays an active role in overcoming her own problems. The aim of this study was to assess the men's perceptions of sexual harassment in relation to different victim responses. The study involved 101 men who were administered a questionnaire focusing on two of the most frequent types of harassment (gender harassment vs. unwanted sexual attention) and victim response (confrontation vs. non confrontation), both of which were manipulated. Moreover, the influences of ideological variables, ambivalent sexism, and the acceptance of myths of sexual harassment on perception were also assessed. The results highlight the complexities involved in recognizing certain behaviors as harassment and the implications of different victim responses to incidents of harassment. As the coping strategies used by women to confront harassment entail drawbacks that pose problems or hinder them, the design and implementation of prevention and/or education programs should strive to raise awareness among men and women to further their understanding of this construct.

Two studies examined how the effect of dependency and emotions on the dynamics of relationship conflict differs between men and women. In Study 1, 96 women and 67 men were presented with conflict situations that might occur in their relationship; the probability of aggression, anger, and dependency was measured. Results showed that anger mediated the relationship between dependency and the intention to use aggression, in men, but not in women. In Study 2, 95 women and 65 men wrote about a conflict situation that they had experienced with their partner; loyalty, guilt, and dependency were measured. Results showed that dependency predicted loyalty among women, and that this effect was mediated by guilt.

Conflict is inherent to all types of interpersonal relationships. The interdependence that characterizes romantic relationships is related to the way that men and women perceive intimate partner conflict. The emotion of guilt also plays an important role in the perception of conflict. In the present research we study how, in a conflictive situation, dependency in the relationship is related to guilt in men and women. A total of 116 young Spaniards (half men and half women) were exposed to a plausible conflict situation with their partners. Fifty-eight were undergraduate Psychology students who came to the laboratory with their partners (also mainly college students). The perceived seriousness of the conflict was manipulated, and the study explored how this perception affected the emotion of guilt. We also analyzed the effect of dependency on the intensity of experienced guilt. Results showed that women with high dependency felt guiltier than women with low dependency in high-conflict situations.

This study aims to analyse the acceptance of gender violence in Spanish and Cuban populations. We analysed the influence of sexist beliefs and other ideologies that justify unequal gender relationships. A total of 230 men and women from Spain and 200 from Cuba participated by answering a questionnaire. The results showed the effect of participants’ gender and nationality as well as ideological variables (sexism, beliefs in a just world and codes of honour) that legitimise the status quo of gender violence. The male participants and the Cuban participants accepted violence against women more than the female participants and the Spanish participants. What is more, the results showed a pattern in the influence of the ideological variables that differed depending on the participants’ nationality. In Spain, the relationship between participants’ benevolent sexism and the justification of violence was mediated by codes of honour. In Cuba, the relationship between hostile sexism and acceptance of violenc...

Dado el rol que la mujer tiene en la familia, su ingreso en prision conlleva un estigma familiar, alteracion de roles y problemas de apego, efectos que se ven agravados en el caso de tener hijos pequenos en prision. El proposito de esta investigacion es contrastar las diferencias, entre las respuestas que dan hombres y mujeres a una serie de cuestiones referidas a su paso por la carcel. Concretamente, conocer si el paso por la institucion afecta de manera diferencial a unos y otras y analizar las diferencias a la luz de las teorias sobre roles de genero. Es por ello que resulta de suma importancia atender el hecho de que no se trata de que las mujeres tengan problemas diferentes a los que pueden hallarse en los hombres, sino que a las consecuencias propias que se derivan del encierro en hombres y mujeres, se suman las propias de la condicion de genero.

Some research has shown that high levels of economic dependency in a woman predict the likelihood that she will be psychologically or physically abused by her partner. Accordingly, one aim of our research was to examine the role of economic dependence in the perception of gender violence and to verify whether attitudes about a violence situation can be affected by the observer's gender. Psychosocial research also confirms the presence of sexist beliefs in society that can be used to legitimize and to maintain this type of aggression. Thus, the second objective of our research was to analyze the relation between sexist attitudes and the justification of domestic violence. The results show the influence of observer's gender and of victim's economic dependence, as well as the influence of sexist beliefs on reactions to domestic violence.

ResumenMediante el perdón, las personas reducen las respuestas negativas hacia sus transgresores, encontrándose más motivadas a mostrar comportamientos positivos en su lugar. Esta investigación pretende aproximarse al fenómeno del perdón a través de dos estudios. En el primero participaron 101 estudiantes universitarios, teniendo como objetivo examinar los diferentes tipos de transgresiones en función del tipo de relación (amistad vs. pareja) y del género. En el segundo estudio (n = 201 participantes de la población general) se estudió la influencia del género, así como aspectos emocionales y motivacionales en la concesión de perdón ante una transgresión de infidelidad. Los resultados del primer estudio mostraron que la infidelidad es la transgresión que se percibe como más grave. En el segundo, los resultados mostraron que ante este tipo de transgresión, las mujeres perciben las consecuencias como más graves, tienen sentimientos más negativos, mayor empatía y mayor dependencia que los hombres. Asimismo, la empatía en hombres, así como la dependencia en mujeres, predicen una mayor venganza, traduciéndose en un menor perdón. Finalmente, los resultados mostraron que tanto en hombres como en mujeres, el afecto negativo media la relación entre la gravedad de la transgresión y la motivación de venganza como consecuencia de la infidelidad.AbstractThrough forgiveness, people reduce negative responses toward their transgressors, and are more motivated to show positive behaviors instead. Two studies were performed with the aim to approach the phenomenon of forgiveness. The first study, in which 101 university students participated, aimed to examine the different types of transgressions depending on the type of relationship (friendship vs. couple) and gender. In the second study (n = 201 participants from general population), we studied the influence of gender, emotional, and motivational variables on forgiveness after infidelity betrayal. Results of the first study showed that infidelity is perceived as the most serious transgression. In the second study, results showed that in unfaithful transgression, women perceived the consequences as more serious, felt more negative emotions and showed greater empathy and dependency than men. Also, empathy in men as well as dependency in women were found to predict revenge, and resulted in less forgiveness. Finally, results showed that in both men and women, the negative affect mediated the relationship between severity of transgression and motivation to retaliate as a result of infidelity.

Sexual harassment is among the most serious forms of gender violence, and what all violent acts have in common are the many myths associated with them. Three studies were conducted to adapt a Spanish version of the Illinois Sexual Harassment Myth Acceptance (ISHMA) scale, which assesses myths about sexual harassment. The first study aimed to, for the first time, present psychometric data on the Spanish version of the ISHMA. The participants were 339 college students. After adapting the items and measuring their content validity, we examined the test’s dimensional structure, statistically analyzed the items, and determined the instrument’s reliability (α = .91 for the total scale and between .77 and .84 for the different dimensions). Study 2 involved 326 adult participants from the general population and its objective was to evaluate the scale’s dimensional structure through confirmatory factor analysis (χ2143 = 244.860, p < .001; GFI = .952; CFI = .958; RMSEA = .034 [.026 – .041]). The third study was conducted in order to measure convergent validity in both students and adults from the general population. Differences by gender were found in all dimensions being the females’ means higher than males (Cohen´s d between .38 and .62). Our findings suggest the Spanish version of the ISHMA is a useful instrument to study myths about sexual harassment.

According to traditional gender roles and stereotypes, men are given the primary role of breadwinners (work orientation), whereas women are responsible for the nurturance of children and the maintenance of the family dwelling (family orientation). Therefore, it could be presumed that women and men with a steady romantic relationship give a different importance to their career. However, several factors may affect the relation between close relationships and career salience, namely, (1) characteristics of the individual (education and employment status, gender ideology, gender role identity), (2) characteristics of the relationship (e.g., dependence on the partner, presence or not of children), and (3) characteristics of the partner (e.g., gender ideology, educational attainment). Moreover, these factors may affect career salience differentially in men and women. Both members of 148 Spanish couples, all white and middle-class, answered an individual questionnaire. The results show that women and men obtained similar scores in career salience. However, women with children, a low educational level, and traditional gender ideology and those who were strongly influenced by their partners showed lower career salience than women with the opposite characteristics. Moreover, whereas career salience among men was unrelated to the characteristics of their partners, career salience among women was related to the gender ideology, labor situation, and educational attainment of their partners.

ResumenEl objetivo fundamental de esta investigacion ha sido tratar de delimitar el constructo soledad. Si bien tradicionalmente en la literatura sobre el tema se ha establecido un paralelismo entre soledad y apoyo social, en tanto que ambos conceptos hacen referencia a las relaciones sociales que mantienen las personas, nuestro principal interes ha sido tratar de poner de manifiesto que la soledad, a pesar de estar relacionada con determinados aspectos del apoyo social, es un fenomeno diferente que hace referencia a aspectos mas subjetivos, emocionales, profundos y globales, y que por tanto, tendra efectos mas devastadores sobre la vida de las personas que la falta de apoyo social.En esta investigacion se presentan datos de 786 personas de ambos sexos y diferente edad, nivel educativo, estado civil, etc., que contestaron un cuestionario que incluia la 3a version de la UCLA Loneliness Scale, la medida de Apoyo Social de Dunkel-Schettery cols. (1986), asi como medidas de autoestima y calidad de vida. Los r...

ResumenEn los paises occidentales las formas tradicionales de sexismo son cada vez mas minoritarias, de manera que solo un sector muy reducido de la poblacion manifiesta una actitud basada en la supuesta inferioridad de las mujeres como grupo. Sin embargo, diversos indices sugieren que la igualdad entre hombres y mujeres dista mucho de ser una realidad. Esta situacion contradictoria ha llevado a formular la existencia de formas mas sutiles o encubiertas de sexismo. Segun Glick y Fiske (1996), el sexismo ambivalente conjuga las formas tradicionales con formas “benevolas”, que si bien tienen un componente afectivo y conductual positivo siguen considerando a la mujer de forma estereotipada y limitada a ciertos roles.En esta investigacion se presentan datos de 1110 varones, de diferentes edades, niveles educativos, estado civil, etc. que contestaron la version espanola del Ambivalent Sexism Inventory (ASI), asi como otras medidas de sexismo tradicional y de amenaza a los intereses de los varones. Los resultad...

ResumenLa cosificación sexual interpersonal es la reducción de una mujer a su cuerpo o partes de éste. Este fenómeno puede ser considerado como una forma de discriminación sexista, en la que una mujer es tratada de manera diferente minimizando la importancia de sus atributos internos. Este estudio, en el que se incluyeron 251 participantes de población general, tiene como objetivo analizar el fenómeno de la cosificación sexual interpersonal en hombres y mujeres, y su relación con variables ideológicas (sexismo y poder), autoestima y disfrute de la sexualización. Los resultados mostraron diferencias de género en la cosificación sexual interpersonal, de modo que las mujeres experimentaron en mayor medida experiencias de cosificación en sus relaciones interpersonales. Además, se observó un patrón diferencial de las variables relacionadas con las experiencias de cosificación en función del género. En hombres, la autoestima y el poder fueron variables relacionadas con una mayor percepción de cosificación. En concreto, el poder predice una mayor percepción de cosificación y esta relación estuvo mediada por el disfrute de la sexualización. En las mujeres, es el sexismo benévolo el que lleva a una mayor percepción de cosificación sexual interpersonal y esta relación estuvo mediada por el disfrute de la sexualización.AbstractInterpersonal sexual objectification is defined as the act of reducing a woman to her body or body parts. It could be considered as a form of sexist discrimination, in which women have a differential treatment minimizing the importance of their inner qualities. The aim of this study, in which involved 251 participants, was to analyze the perception of interpsersonal sexual objectification in men and women. In addition, we examined the relationship between the interpersonal sexual objectification and ideological variables (sexism and power) as well as self-esteem and enjoyment of sexualization. Results showed gender differences in interpersonal sexual objectification. Women experienced more sexual objectification in their interpersonal relationships. Also, results showed the effect of gender in the variables that predicted interpersonal sexual objectification. In men, self-esteem and power were related with more experiences of sexual objectification. Specifically, power predited the perception of objectification and this effect was mediated by enjoyment of sexualization. However, in women, benevolent sexism predicted the perception of interpersonal sexual objectification and this effect was mediated by enjoyment of sexualization.

The existence of domestic violence is closely linked to several ideological factors that include sexism and other beliefs about society in general, namely the belief in a just world. In this study, which involved 485 people of both sexes aged between 18 and 70 years, we analyzed the influence of these ideological variables of the perceivers and characteristics of the situation on judgments of a gender aggression – blaming the victim and exonerating the perpetrator. Results showed differences in the reactions of observers depending on the cause that triggered the aggression. Participants blamed the victim and exonerated the aggressor more when no cause of the aggression was mentioned than when a cause was mentioned (the woman wanted to separate, to see an old male friend, or simply to take a trip with her female friends). We also found clear effects of hostile sexism and just world beliefs on the dependent variables. Results showed that the influence of just world beliefs depended on the fact of mention or not a cause for the aggression.

Los conflictos son inherentes a cualquier tipo de relacion interpersonal, y en el caso de las relaciones de pareja pueden tener innumerables efectos destructivos dentro de esta. Las emociones adquieren una gran importancia en el estudio de los conflictos interpersonales (de pareja) ya que su expresion es natural en cualquier situacion de conflicto. Se ha sugerido que las mujeres expresan ?emociones no poderosas? como culpa, tristeza o miedo y los hombres, por el contrario, expresan en mayor medida ?emociones poderosas? como furia o desprecio. El objetivo de este estudio consistio en investigar el tipo de emociones interpersonales que hombres y mujeres experimentaban ante distintas situaciones conflictivas de pareja. A su vez, se pretendia analizar el efecto de las emociones en la frecuencia de los conflictos. Se presentaron cinco situaciones hipoteticas conflictivas a un total de 142 estudiantes universitarios y se evaluo la intensidad de las emociones que sentian ante cada situacion asi como la frecuencia de los conflictos de pareja. Los resultados muestran diferencias de genero en las emociones en cada situacion conflictiva, de modo que las mujeres experimentaron con mayor intensidad todo tipo de emociones. Sin embargo, en hombres, las emociones poderosas predijeron una mayor frecuencia de conflictos en la pareja.

La violencia de genero representa uno de los problemas mas importantes a los que se enfrenta la sociedad actual. Esta realidad ha propiciado la aprobacion y desarrollo de importantes cambios legislativos y de intervencion mas acordes con la especificad de este tipo de delitos. Dado el progresivo incremento de hombres que son condenados por delito de violencia de genero y teniendo en cuenta las caracteristicas generales de los mismos, en la mayoria de los casos se trata de delincuentes primarios y completamente normalizados, la respuesta penal nos ofrece una oportunidad para intervenir con este tipo de poblacion. Una de las medidas mas novedosas impuestas por los jueces para este tipo de hechos es la suspension de la ejecucion de las condenas privativas de libertad, por delito de maltrato, a cambio de la realizacion de programas psicologicos especificos de violencia de genero, siempre y cuando se cumplan las condiciones que la ley establece. El articulo describe la experiencia en la aplicacion de un programa de intervencion psicosocial con perspectiva de genero, con un grupo de hombres condenados por delito de maltrato y en situacion de suspension condicionada de condena. Se analiza el perfil sociodemografico de la muestra y se emplea para la evaluacion del programa, pruebas especificas relacionadas fundamentalmente con la ideologia de genero, asi como con aquellas creencias relacionadas con las relaciones entre hombres y mujeres en el ambito de la pareja y las actitudes hacia la violencia de genero. De los resultados obtenidos con esta experiencia se desprende la necesidad de mantener y potenciar la intervencion con hombres maltratadores como forma de prevencion de nuevos episodios de violencia de genero sobre las mismas o futuras mujeres victimas de este tipo de violencia.

Three studies examined women's reactions to ostensibly protective restrictions. In Study 1, only benevolently sexist women accepted a protectively justified (hypothetical) prohibition against driving on a long trip, but only when imposed by a husband (not a coworker). In Study 2, when women's actual romantic partners opposed their participation in a practicum counseling dangerous men, most reacted positively to a personalized protective justification (“I am concerned for your safety”), but only benevolently sexist women reacted positively when no justification was given. In Study 3, only benevolently sexist women accepted an explicitly group-based protective justification (“It is not safe for any woman ”) for a partner's imagined opposition to an internship that involved interviewing criminals. By fusing benevolence with dominance, protective paternalism can lead women (especially those who are high on benevolent sexism) to accept restrictions.

Item does not contain fulltext The authors argue that complementary hostile and benevolent components of sexism exist across cultures. Male dominance creates hostile sexism (HS), but men's dependence on women fosters benevolent sexism (BS)--subjectively positive attitudes that put women on a pedestal but reinforce their subordination. Research with 15,000 men and women in 19 nations showed that (a) HS and BS are coherent constructs that correlate positively across nations, but (b) HS predicts the ascription of negative and BS the ascription of positive traits to women, (c) relative to men, women are more likely to reject HS than BS, especially when overall levels of sexism in a culture are high, and (d) national averages on BS and HS predict gender inequality across nations. These results challenge prevailing notions of prejudice as an antipathy in that BS (an affectionate, patronizing ideology) reflects inequality and is a cross-culturally pervasive complement to HS. 13 p.

The present study examined the influence of cultural background on the experience of loneliness. Six hundred and thirty-seven participants from North America and 454 from Spain volunteered to answer an 82-item questionnaire which examined the quality of their loneliness experiences. The factors which comprise the experience of loneliness are Emotional distress, Social inadequacy and alienation, Growth and discovery, Interpersonal isolation, and Self-alienation. Results indicated that cultural background, indeed, affects the experience of loneliness. North Americans scored higher on all five factors, and a similar trend was evident when men and women were compared across cultures.