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This article describes the historical background of the medicolegal aspects of doping in sports and especially in football. The definitions of legal terms are explained and the procedure of individual case management as part of FIFA's approach to doping is presented. Finally, three medicolegal problems awaiting urgent solution are outlined: firstly, the difficulties in decision making arising from the decrease of the T/E ratio from 6 to 4; secondly, the therapeutic application of alpha-reductase inhibitors for male pattern baldness in the face of the classification of finasteride as a forbidden masking agent; and lastly, the increasing use of recreational drugs and its social and legal implications in positive cases.

Background and Objectives: FIFA's anti-doping strategy relies on education and prevention. A worldwide network of physicians guarantees doping control procedures that are straightforward and leave no place for cheating. FIFA actively acknowledges its responsibility to protect players from harm and ensure equal chances for all competitors by stringent doping control regulations, data collection of positive samples, support of research, and collaboration with other organisations. This article aims to outline FIFA's approach to doping in football., Method: Description of FIFA's doping control regulations and procedures, statistical analysis of FIFA database on doping control, and comparison with data obtained by WADA accredited laboratories as for 2004., Results: Data on positive doping samples per substance and confederation/nation documented at the FIFA medical office from 1994 to 2005 are provided. According to the FIFA database, the incidence of positive cases over the past 11 years was 0.12%, with about 0.42% in 2004 (based on the assumption of 20,750 samples per year) and 0.37% in 2005. Especially important in this regard is the extremely low incidence of the true performance enhancing drugs such as anabolic steroids and stimulants. However, there is a need for more consistent data collection and cross checks among international anti-doping agencies as well as for further studies on specific substances, methods, and procedures. With regard to general health impairments in players, FIFA suggests that principles of occupational medicine should be considered and treatment with banned substances for purely medical reasons should be permitted to enable players to carry out their profession. At the same time, a firm stand has to be taken against suppression of symptoms by medication with the aim of meeting the ever increasing demands on football players., Conclusion: Incidence of doping in football seems to be low, but much closer collaboration and further investigation is needed with regard to banned substances, detection methods, and data collection worldwide.

Background: Standardized assessment of sports injuries provides not only important epidemiological information, but also directions for injury prevention, and the opportunity for monitoring long-term changes in the frequency and characteristics of injury., Purpose: Development and implementation of an easy to use injury-reporting system to analyze the incidence, circumstances and characteristics of injury during major international football tournaments., Study Design: Prospective survey., Methods: A comprehensive injury report form was developed, and implemented during 12 international football tournaments. The physicians of all participating teams were asked to report all injuries after each match. The response rate was 84% on average., Results: A total of 901 injuries were reported from 334 matches, which is equivalent to an incidence of 2.7 injuries per match. Approximately one injury per match resulted in a player's absence from training or matches. On average 86% of the injuries arose as a result of contact with another player, and approximately half of all injuries were caused by foul play. The number of injuries per match differed substantially between the tournaments for players of different age, sex and skill-level., Conclusion: An injury-reporting system has been implemented as matter of routine in FIFA tournaments. The consistent findings in the present study demonstrate the high quality of the data obtained.

Background: The Fédération Internationale de Football Association (FIFA) World Cup is one of the largest, most popular sporting events but is associated with a certain risk of injury for the players., Purpose: Analysis of the incidence, circumstances, and characteristics of soccer injury during the World Cup 2002., Study Design: Prospective survey., Methods: The physicians of all participating teams reported all injuries after each match on a standardized injury report form. The response rate was 100%., Results: A total of 171 injuries were reported from the 64 matches, which is equivalent to an incidence of 2.7 injuries per match; approximately 1 to 2 injuries per match resulted in absence from training or match. More than a quarter of all injuries were incurred without contact with another player, and 73% were contact injuries. Half of the contact injuries, or 37% of all injuries, were caused by foul play as rated by the team physician and the injured player., Conclusion: The incidence of injuries during the World Cup 2002 was similar to those reported for the World Cup in 1994 and in 1998. Increased awareness of the importance of fair play may assist in the prevention of injury.

Background: Repeated impacts by heading might lead to significant head injuries in soccer players comparable to those of patients with accidental minor traumatic brain injury (TBI). The neuroprotein S-100B released into the circulation is suggested to be a reliable marker indicating brain damage. The objective was to evaluate the neuroprotein S-100B serum levels in young amateur soccer players early after controlled heading compared to early measurements after normal exercise as well as in other patients after minor TBI., Material and Methods: Sixty-one male amateur soccer players (median age 15.3 years) performed controlled heading aimed at the forehead for 55 minutes. Data were compared to 58 male amateur soccer players (15.9 years) performing 61 minutes of normal exercise training without head contact and 81 young male patients early after TBI who underwent computed tomography (CCT) for detection of intracranial lesions. First venous blood samples were drawn before the training sessions, second and third samples 60 and 360 minutes after heading or 64 and 355 minutes after exercise, respectively, 65 and 366 minutes after TBI., Results: Median S-100B serum levels of the heading group only slightly increased from 0.15 ng/ml to 0.18 ng/ml 60 minutes after end of training. Within 360 minutes S-100B values decreased again to 0.15 ng/ml reaching the initial values. S-100B serum values of the exercise group showed a similar transient increase exhibiting significant lower levels before exercise (0.10 ng/ml) as well as 64 minutes (0.11 ng/ml) and 355 minutes after exercise (0.09 ng/ml) compared to the heading group. According to age stratification in the heading group, starting median S-100B levels were significantly higher in subjects with 12-13 years (0.22 ng/ml) and 14-15 years (0.17 ng/ml) compared to those with 16-17 years of age (0.06 ng/ml). None of the subcollectives did reach median S-100B levels of the CCT+ group (n = 20) at admission (0.62 ng/ml) or 366 minutes later (0.32 ng/ml), which were significantly elevated compared to those of the CCT group (n = 61) at admission (0.10 ng/ml) or 370 minutes later (0.08 ng/ml)., Conclusions: Controlled repetitive heading in young amateur soccer players leads to a transient increase between 60 to 360 min after training, but does not appear to evoke a longer lasting S-100B release into serum indicating cellular brain damage. After heading S-100B levels are significantly elevated compared to normal exercise. Although soccer players with 12-13 years and 14-15 years revealed significantly higher S-100B values than with 16-17 years of age, the transient increase is independent of the age-related starting values. However, since brain damage due to abrupt heading a ball of high speed or accidental trauma during regular soccer games cannot be excluded, S-100B measurements in soccer players are initiated during video-controlled soccer games.

Background: Risk factors for soccer injuries and possibilities for prevention have been discussed by several authors, but only a few have investigated the effectiveness of preventive interventions., Purpose: The aim of the present study was to evaluate the effects of a prevention program on the incidence of soccer injuries in male youth amateur players., Study Design: Prospective controlled intervention study., Methods: Seven soccer teams took part in a prevention program that focused on education and supervision of coaches and players, while seven other teams were instructed to train and play soccer as usual. Over 1 year all injuries were documented weekly by physicians. Complete weekly injury reports were available for 194 players., Results: The incidence of injury per 1000 hours of training and playing soccer was 6.7 in the intervention group and 8.5 in the control group, which equates to 21% fewer injuries in the intervention group. The greatest effects were observed for mild injuries, overuse injuries, and injuries incurred during training. The prevention program had greater effects in low-skill than in high-skill teams., Conclusions: The incidence of soccer injuries can be reduced by preventive interventions, especially in low skill level youth teams. Coaches and players need better education regarding injury prevention strategies and should include such interventions as part of their regular training., (Copyright 2002 American Orthopaedic Society for Sports Medicine)

Review of the literature shows that information concerning risk factors for football injuries is incomplete and partly contradictory. The aim of this study was to analyze the influence of medical history, physical findings, football skills, and football performance, as well as psychosocial characteristics on the occurrence and severity of football injuries. The prospective outline of the study was as follows: after a baseline examination was performed to ascertain possible predictors of injury, all players were followed up weekly for 1 year to register subsequent injuries and complaints. Two hundred sixty-four of 398 players (67%) had complete weekly follow-ups over 1 year. A majority of the players (N = 216; 82%) were injured during the observation period. In comparing injured and uninjured players, several differences were observed. To create a multidimensional predictor score for football injuries, 17 risk factors were selected. These risk factors covered a wide spectrum, such as previous injuries, acute complaints, inadequate rehabilitation, poor health awareness, high life-event stress, playing characteristics, poor reaction time, poor endurance, and insufficient preparation for games. By summing up the individual risk factors, a predictive sum was calculated for each player. The more risk factors present at the baseline examination, the higher the probability of that player incurring an injury in the ensuing year. Using two risk factors as the cut-off score, more than 80% of the players were correctly classified as to whether they went on to incur an injury. Based on these findings, knowledge from the literature, and practical experience, possibilities for a prevention program are suggested.

In this study, the incidence of football injuries and complaints as related to different age groups and skill levels was studied over the period of 1 year. All injuries and complaints as well as the amount of time players spent in training and games were recorded. All injured players were examined weekly by physicians, and all injuries were assessed according to the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-10), which describes them in terms of injury type and location, the treatment required, and the duration of subsequent performance limitations. A total of 264 players of different age groups and skill levels was observed for 1 year. Five hundred fifty-eight injuries were documented. Two hundred sixteen players had one or more injuries. Only 48 players (18%) had no injury. The average number of injuries per player per year was 2.1. Injuries were classified as mild (52%), moderate (33%), or severe (15%). Almost 50% of all injuries were contact injuries; half of all the contact injuries were associated with foul play. The majority of injuries were strains and sprains involving the ankle, knee, and lumbar spine. Nearly all players (91%) suffered from complaints related to football. Only 23 players reported no injuries and no complaints. Prevention programs, fair play, and continuing education in techniques and skills may reduce the incidence of injuries over time.

It is hypothesized that players of different levels of play might differ not only in their football skills but also in their way of playing football and with respect to psychological factors such as concentration, reaction time, or competitive anxiety. The psychological characteristics of a player might influence his way of playing football (in particular with respect to fair play) and also his risk of injury. A group of 588 football players were studied by questionnaire; additionally, reaction time tests were performed. Psychological characteristics were assessed by three established self-evaluation questionnaires: the Athletic Coping Skills Inventory, the State Competitive Anxiety Test, and the State-Trait-Anger-Expression-Inventory. Football-specific characteristics that were investigated included playing experience and positions played, style of play, number of training hours and games, as well as aspects of fair play. Reaction time was tested twice: without the influence of physical exercise and immediately after a 12-minute run. A significant reduction in reaction time was observed after physical exercise. In high-level players, the reaction time immediately after the 12-minute run was significantly shorter than it was in low-level players. The questionnaire answers given regarding fair play clearly indicated that fair play is not paid sufficient respect. The relationship between psychological characteristics and attitudes toward fair play was analyzed and discussed.

The most important variables for measuring performance in team sports such as football are physical condition and technical and tactical performance. However, because of the complexity of the game of football it is difficult to ascertain the relative importance of each of these variables. The aim of the present study was to develop a standardized test battery to evaluate physical performance in football players. The F-MARC test battery was designed to closely relate to the football player's normal activity and comprised a functional, structured training session of approximately 2.5 hours. It included a "quality rating" of the warm-up procedure, tests of flexibility, football skills, power, speed, and endurance. The players finished with a cool-down. A total of 588 football players underwent the F-MARC test battery. Mean values for performance on each test are presented for groups of differing age and skill levels. The test battery proved to be a feasible instrument to assess both physical performance and football skills. This study supports the proposal by Balsom (1994) that analysis of an individual player's physical profile, in relation to mean values for a similar age group and skill level, might be of assistance to the coach in objectively evaluating the effects of a specific training program. It may also be of use to the physician and physical therapist responsible for monitoring progress during rehabilitation after football injuries.

The physical and physiologic demands of football on its participants become more pronounced as the level of competition increases. The aim of this study was to compare the medical history and physical findings in players from different levels of play as well as to analyze the relationship between pathologic findings in the joints of the lower extremities and the medical history. Five hundred eighty-eight football players from eight age and skill levels were investigated. The medical histories of the players were obtained by questionnaire. A physical examination conducted by specially trained physicians incorporated anthropometric and body fat measurements and examination of the spine and the hip, knee, foot, and great toe joints. On average, the players reported 6.6 (SD, 8.8) previous injuries. At the time of the examination, 136 players (24%) still felt the effects of a previous injury. Almost one-quarter of the players (134, 23%) had a pathologic finding in either the right or left knee, and even more players (162, 28%) had a pathologic anterior drawer sign either in the right or left ankle. A correlation was found between the location of the pathologic findings and the preferred leg for playing football. We recommend that further research should address the prevalence of pathologic findings and complaints in football players as well as the secondary structural changes that may occur as the result of playing football.