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Copyright of Retos: Nuevas Perspectivas de Educación Física, Deporte y Recreación is the property of Federacion Espanola de Asociaciones de Docentes de Educacion Fisica and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Background: A randomised trial of European Fans in Training (EuroFIT), a 12-week healthy lifestyle program delivered in 15 professional football clubs in the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and the United Kingdom, successfully increased physical activity and improved diet but did not reduce sedentary time. To guide future implementation, this paper investigates how those effects were achieved. We ask: 1) how was EuroFIT implemented? 2) what were the processes through which outcomes were achieved?, Methods: We analysed qualitative data implementation notes, observations of 29 of 180 weekly EuroFIT deliveries, semi-structured interviews with 16 coaches and 15 club representatives, and 30 focus group discussions with participants (15 post-program and 15 after 12 months). We descriptively analysed quantitative data on recruitment, attendance at sessions and logs of use of the technologies and survey data on the views of participants at baseline, post program and after 12 months. We used a triangulation protocol to investigate agreement between data from difference sources, organised around meeting 15 objectives within the two research questions., Results: We successfully recruited clubs, coaches and men to EuroFIT though the draw of the football club seemed stronger in the UK and Portugal. Advertising that emphasized getting fitter, club-based deliveries, and not 'standing out' worked and attendance and fidelity were good, so that coaches in all countries were able to deliver EuroFIT flexibly as intended. Coaches in all 15 clubs facilitated the use of behaviour change techniques and interaction between men, which together enhanced motivation. Participants found it harder to change sedentary time than physical activity and diet. Fitting changes into daily routines, planning for setbacks and recognising the personal benefit of behaviour change were important to maintain changes. Bespoke technologies were valued, but technological hitches frustrated participants., Conclusion: EuroFIT was delivered as planned by trained club coaches working flexibly in all countries. It worked as expected to attract men and support initiation and maintenance of changes in physical activity and diet but the use of bespoke, unstable, technologies was frustrating. Future deliveries should eliminate the focus on sedentary time and should use only proven technologies to support self-monitoring and social interaction., Trial Registration: ISRCTN81935608, registered 16/06/2015., (© 2023. The Author(s).)

The present paper aims to analyze and understand, from an intersectional point of view, the extent and the characteristics of racism in football in Portugal, based on the perspectives of football fans, coaches, amateur players, professional players, journalists, parents, and other elements directly or indirectly involved in the modality. Using an online questionnaire, this exploratory study involved 1681 participants, 456 self-identified as women, 1221 as men, and 4 as non-binary, aged between 13 and 61 years old (M = 33.02; DP = 12.64). The results show gender, skin color, ethnicity, sexual orientation/gender identity, and functional diversity are the main factors explaining discrimination in football, with differences between genders. Nearly 70% of women and 50% of men admitted the existence of racism in football in Portugal. In addition, associations between participants' condition, age, perceptions, and experiences of racism were found, with amateur players and younger participants revealing a stronger position concerning the topic. This study can inform contemporary debates in critical research, particularly around football, discrimination, and cultural citizenship. Intersectional research across football studies is crucial to better understand the racialized aspects of football and develop better policies that can prevent and combat racism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We examined the effects of a 6-month school-based soccer programme on cardiovascular (CV) and metabolic risk factors in overweight children. Methods: 40 boys [8-12 years; body mass index (BMI) >2 standard deviations of WHO reference values] participated in complementary school-based physical education classes (two sessions per week, 45-90 min each). The participants were divided into a soccer group (SG; n = 20) and a control group (CG; n = 20). The SG intervention involved 3 extra-curricular school-based soccer sessions per week, 60-90 min each. The intervention lasted for 6-months. All measurements were taken at baseline and after 6-months. From baseline to 6-months, the SG significantly improved (p < .05) BMI z-score, waist circumference, waist-to-height ratio, percentage of fat mass, percentage of fat-free mass, diastolic blood pressure, total cholesterol, triglycerides, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C) and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, but no such improvements were observed for the CG. After the intervention, the prevalence of soccer participants with normal waist-to-height ratio (30 vs. 5%; p = .037), systolic blood pressure (90 vs. 55%; p = .039), total cholesterol (80 vs. 65%; p = .035) and LDL-C (90 vs. 75%; p = .012) were significantly higher than at baseline. The findings suggest that a 6-month school-based soccer intervention program represents an effective strategy to reduce CV and metabolic risk factors in overweight children prepared to take part in a soccer program., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest regarding the publication of this paper., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

Aims: This study aimed to analyze the feasibility and safety of a community-based walking football program in middle-aged and older men with type 2 diabetes (T2D)., Methods: Thirty-one male (age, 64.4 ± 4.5 years old; glycated hemoglobin, 6.7 ± 1.0%; body mass index: 28.8 ± 3.3 kg/m 2 ) patients with T2D were recruited from primary health care units in Porto, Portugal. The participants engaged in a 12-wk walking football program (three sessions per week of 60 min; consisting of strength and conditioning exercises, technical skills drills, and small-sided walking football games). Exercise intensity was planned to be gradual throughout the program in three 4-wk phases (phase I, light-intensity; phase II, moderate-intensity; phase III, vigorous-intensity) through the manipulation of game constraints, and monitored by OMNI scale and heart rate reserve (HRR). Sessions' enjoyment level, and exercise-related injuries and adverse events were recorded in all sessions., Results: The median (P25-P75) adherence to the program was 86.1% (77.8-97.2%). The median enjoyment levels reported by participants was 5 (4-5) points in phase I, 5 (5-5) points in phase II and 5 (5-5) points in phase III. Sessions' average subjective exercise intensity was 3.0 ± 0.6 points in OMNI scale in phase I, 3.5 ± 0.4 points in phase II, and 3.8 ± 0.4 points in phase III. Sessions' average HRR was 35.8 ± 6.7% in phase I, 41.6 ± 4.2% in phase II, and 37.3 ± 4.3% in phase III. Most participants attained vigorous-intensity peaks in all phases. Falls (n = 25) and musculoskeletal injuries (n = 8) were the most frequent adverse events. 31% of these events interfered with exercise participation, but no harm has resulted from it., Conclusion: A community-based walking football program for T2D patients revealed high levels of adherence and enjoyment, and light-to-vigorous exercise intensity. The adverse events were according to the expected for the population and activity. Therefore, walking football seems to be a feasible and safe exercise strategy, and has the potential for large scale implementation for T2D control., Trial Registration: NCT03810846., Competing Interests: Declaration of Competing Interest The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper., (Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.)

This paper presents a case study which aims to establish a relationship between the homogeneity of passing distribution between players of a team and goal attempts in the team sport of association football. We observed data from 10 competitive football matches, involving 10 different professional football teams of different performance levels, competing in the Portuguese League during the 2010/2011 season. Performance data were analysed using the Match Analysis Software Amisco. Shannon's entropy measure was used to quantify the homogeneity of passing distribution within each team. Results suggested the existence of a pattern between an increase in the homogeneity of passing distributions and the attempts to scoring goals in the sample of competitive matches studied. A homogeneous distribution of passes can moderately predict (approximately 45% of accuracy) when a goal attempt will occur within the following minute of an entropy assessment.

This paper examines where European professional teams recruit new players in order to shed light on the functioning of global value added chains in world football. Most studies either point to the increasing internationalization of football's labor force to argue that European clubs recruit from peripheral but culturally or historically related countries or turn to the experiences of players with domestic transfers to suggest that most teams recruit within their country. This study directly examines the recruitment activities of teams active in the highest two leagues of Europe's top seven countries between the 2003/2004 season and the 2011/2012 season. Results indicate that even though Europe's football labor force looks internationalized at first sight, many international players hold dual nationality and might be more aptly characterized as domestic players who are members of the large immigrant communities who came to Europe after the de-colonization of former colonies or as part of the stream of labor migrants in the 1960s and 1970s. Moreover, for most teams, domestic mobility forms the backbone of their recruitment activities, but some teams, especially in Portugal, buy football talent from teams in the global South and sell their best players to larger European teams. These results urge researchers to reconsider teams as more myopic and geographically bounded actors in global value added chains, incorporate domestic mobility into global value added chains, reconsider what counts as the core and the (semi-)periphery connected through the chains, and be wary of approaches taking countries or even leagues as the basic unit of analysis in global value added chains. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In a context of intense competition, emphasized by globalization processes, the football industry seeks to maximize performances through an incessant search for high quality skilled players. In a market logic, these players become a scarce asset. They are intensely sought out by teams, which results in an intense migration flow of footballers. Portuguese football is also imbedded in these migrations dynamics. Although it is not a new phenomenon in recent years, Portugal has become a crossroads of migratory flows players, with a large number of foreign players to reach national clubs, and many Portuguese players to go to foreign clubs. The aim of this paper is to observe the migratory trends of football players in Portugal, and identify the migratory routes not only of the foreign players who arrived in Portugal, but also of the Portuguese players who go abroad. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: Lifestyle interventions targeting physical activity, sedentary time and dietary behaviours have the potential to initiate and support behavioural change and result in public health gain. Although men have often been reluctant to engage in such lifestyle programs, many are at high risk of several chronic conditions. We have developed an evidence and theory-based, gender sensitised, health and lifestyle program (European Fans in Training (EuroFIT)), which is designed to attract men through the loyalty they feel to the football club they support. This paper describes the study protocol to evaluate the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of the EuroFIT program in supporting men to improve their level of physical activity and reduce sedentary behaviour over 12 months.Methods: The EuroFIT study is a pragmatic, two-arm, randomised controlled trial conducted in 15 football clubs in the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal and the UK (England). One-thousand men, aged 30 to 65 years, with a self-reported Body Mass Index (BMI) ≥27 kg/m(2) will be recruited and individually randomised. The primary outcomes are objectively-assessed changes in total physical activity (steps per day) and total sedentary time (minutes per day) at 12 months after baseline assessment. Secondary outcomes are weight, BMI, waist circumference, resting systolic and diastolic blood pressure, cardio-metabolic blood biomarkers, food intake, self-reported physical activity and sedentary time, wellbeing, self-esteem, vitality and quality of life. Cost-effectiveness will be assessed and a process evaluation conducted. The EuroFIT program will be delivered over 12 weekly, 90-minute sessions that combine classroom discussion with graded physical activity in the setting of the football club. Classroom sessions provide participants with a toolbox of behaviour change techniques to initiate and sustain long-term lifestyle changes. The coaches will receive two days of training to enable them to create a positive social environment that supports men in engaging in sustained behaviour change.Discussion: The EuroFIT trial will provide evidence on the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of the EuroFIT program delivered by football clubs to their male fans, and will offer insight into factors associated with success in making sustained changes to physical activity, sedentary behaviour, and secondary outcomes, such as diet.Trial Registration: Isrctn: 81935608 . Registered 16 June 2015. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The purpose of this paper was to present cognitive models illustrating efficiency of the goalkeeper's actions in soccer based on observation of play in selected matches of the Euro 2008 finals. Materials and methods: The observation method was used in the study. The play of both goalkeepers was analysed in 7 soccer matches in a cup phase of the European Championships which took place in Portugal in 2008. The data was recorded on the authors' observation forms. Activity, effectiveness and reliability during both offensive and defensive actions were subject to this examination. Results: It was revealed that most actions of the goalkeeper are aimed at taking control of the field of play or keeping possession of the ball; creating goal scoring opportunity represents only a small percentage of offensive actions. Defensive actions are generally performed individually and the highest reliability is reported while catching the ball. Conclusions: Efficiency models of goalkeepers' actions should be used to create models of play for players representing a lower level of sports competence in order to improve the effectiveness of their game play. One should continue further study to improve a research tool so as to evaluate other, important from the point of view of the game's objectives, actions definitely dependent on team mates' behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Growth and maturation are central concerns in the organization of training and competitions in youth sports. This study examined maturity-associated variation in body size and adiposity among adolescent girls participating in competitive age group youth soccer. The sample included 441 players 10.08-16.73 years of age. Stature and body mass were measured and body composition was predicted. The Fels method was used to estimate skeletal age. Skeletally maturity status (late, average or early maturing) was based on the difference between chronological and skeletal age for each player. Mean stature approximated the 50th percentiles of the general population in all competitive age groups, while mean weight fluctuated between 50th and 75th percentiles. Age- and maturity-specific means for estimated fat mass ranged between 18.0% and 28.2%. The number of players classified as skeletally mature increased with competitive age groups (under-13: 0%; under-15: 8%; under-17: 49%). In general, early maturing girls tended to be heavier than their age group peers and especially when compared to late maturing players. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Upon the emergence of the 2020 Coronavirus pandemic (CP), football referees were forced to cope with the interruption of leagues and experience quarantines, with a potential threat to their physical and psychological well-being. This study examined referees' perceptions of the CP change-event, particularly the effects on refereeing engagement and performance, in part to facilitate more effective support. For this study, an online inventory was circulated during January–February 2021 to 198 referees and assistants from Israel and Portugal, asking them to reflect on the CP in the context of their careers, and the potential effects on their refereeing engagement and performance. The results indicated that the CP was perceived as a moderate change-event in terms of significance, severity, and coping, although many participants did consider it as significant. The participants indicated just a minor reduction in their refereeing quality between the 2019–2020 and the 2020–2021 seasons. The main areas affected were training on a grass field, decision-making training, and financial status. Still, refereeing instruction (conducted mainly online) improved. The behavioural effects were more forceful among the non-professional referees, suggesting that Referee Associations must pay closer attention to support these populations. The participants' motivation, refereeing identity, and self-efficacy were actually improved. Finally, the absence of the crowd in matches allowed the referees to be more aware of their actions and better communicate with players and coaches, which related to better performance. These findings further emphasize the social aspect of football refereeing and the importance of having upright management and communication skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Athletes' sleep is the most important recovery strategy and has received growing attention. However, athletes may experience sleep disruptions due to numerous factors, such as training and competition workloads, travel, changes in sleep-wake schedules, and sleeping environments. They often spend nights in unfamiliar hotels, and sharing a bed, room, or both with another person might affect sleep duration and quality. To analyze the effect of sleeping in shared (SRs) versus individual (IRs) rooms on objective and subjective sleep and on slow-wave-sleep–derived cardiac autonomic activity during an official training camp in elite youth soccer players. Training and match workloads were characterized. Observational case study. Hotel accommodations. Thirteen elite male youth soccer players. Players slept longer in IRs than in SRs (+1:28 [95% CI = 1:18, 1:42] hours:minutes; P <.001). Sleep efficiency was higher in IRs than in SRs (+12% [95% CI = 10%, 15%]; P <.001), whereas sleep latency was shorter in IRs than in SRs (−3 [95% CI = −15, −4] minutes; P <.001). Subjective sleep quality was lower in IRs than in SRs (−2 [−3 to −2] arbitrary units; P <.001). No differences were found for slow-wave-sleep–derived cardiac autonomic activity or for training or match workloads between training camps. During soccer training camps, sleep may be affected by whether the athlete is in an SR versus an IR. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose: To assess the sensitivity of nocturnal heart-rate-variability-monitoring methods to the effects of late-night soccer training sessions in female athletes. Methods: Eleven female soccer players competing in the first division of the Portuguese soccer league wore heart-rate monitors during sleep at night throughout a 1-wk competitive in-season microcycle, after late-night training sessions (n = 3) and rest days (n = 3). Heart rate variability was analyzed through "slow-wave sleep episode" (10-min duration) and "hour by hour" (all the RR intervals recorded throughout the hours of sleep). Training load was quantified by session rating of perceived exertion (281.8 [117.9] to 369.0 [111.7] arbitrary units [a.u.]) and training impulse (77.5 [36.5] to 110.8 [31.6] a.u.), added to subjective well-being ratings (Hopper index = 11.6 [4.4] to 12.8 [3.2] a.u.). These variables were compared between training and rest days using repeated-measures analysis of variance. Results: The log-transformed slow-wave sleep-episode cardiac autonomic activity (lnRMSSD [natural logarithm of the square root of themean of the sumof the squares of differences between adjacent normal RR intervals] varying between 3.92 [0.57] and 4.20 [0.60] ms; ηp² = .16; 95% confidence interval, .01-.26), lnHF (natural logarithm of high frequency), lnLF (natural logarithm of low frequency), lnSD1 (natural logarithm of short-term beat-to-beat variability), and lnSD2 (natural logarithm of long-term beat-to-beat variability), and the nontransformed LF/HF were not different among nighttraining session days and rest days (P > .05). Considering the hour-by-hour method (lnRMSSD varying between 4.05 [0.35] and 4.33 [0.32] ms; ηp² = .46; 95% confidence interval, .26-.52), lnHF, lnLF, lnSD1, and lnSD2 and the nontransformed LF/HF were not different among night-training session days and rest days (P > .05). Conclusion: Late-night soccer training does not seem to affect nocturnal slow-wave sleep-episode and hour-by-hour heart-rate-variability indices in highly trained athletes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Competitive balance is recognized as an important source of market efficiency, a fact found to be true of soccer markets, studied here. In this paper, we measure the competitive balance of the Portuguese Soccer League "Primeira Liga" using data compiled since the 1980/1981 season. Employing different measures of competitive balance, we test for trends in competitive balance using the most appropriate (considering that we are working with time series) techniques and explore how this trend had changed because of the existence of the Golden Generation of soccer players (e.g. Figo, Rui Costa, or João Vieira Pinto). We conclude that competitive balance in the Portuguese Soccer League does not exhibit a regular trend and that the Golden Generation contributed to more balanced seasons. This finding has several important implications, among them the need for Portuguese soccer leagues to increase competitive balance to ensure the sustainability of soccer wages, revenues and profits by putting special effort into the development of highly-skilled, young soccer players. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: The impact of anterior cruciate ligament reconstruction (ACLR) on the performance and career of professional soccer players has not been extensively investigated. Purpose: To evaluate in professional European soccer players (1) the ACL injury incidence, (2) the return-to-play (RTP) rate and time after ACLR, (3) career survival and athlete performance in the first 3 postoperative seasons after RTP, (4) factors likely related to different outcomes after ACLR, and (5) any related differences between the top 8 European soccer leagues. Study Design: Descriptive epidemiology study. Methods: Included were professional soccer players in the top 8 European Soccer leagues (Serie A [Italy], Premier League [England], Ligue 1 [France], LaLiga [Spain], Bundesliga [Germany], Jupiler Pro League [Belgium], Liga NOS [Portugal], and Premier Liga [Russia]) who sustained an ACL injury during seasons 2014 to 2015, 2015 to 2016, and 2016 to 2017. Data were retrieved from publicly available online sources. Outcomes were evaluated based on player age (<25 years, 25-30 years, and >30 years), position (goalkeeper, defender, midfielder, and forward), affected side (dominant vs nondominant), and league. Results: Overall, 195 players sustained an ACL injury, for a mean annual ACL injury incidence of 1.42%. The RTP rate was 95%, with a mean RTP time of 248 ± 136 days. Within the third postoperative season, 66 players (36%) competed in a lower level national league, and 25 (13.6%) ended their careers; a significant reduction in the mean minutes played per season was found in all 3 postoperative seasons. Player age correlated significantly with reduction in performance or recovery from an ACL injury. No significant correlation was found between postoperative player performance and affected side, position, league, or time to RTP. Conclusion: A substantial ACL injury incidence was found in top European elite soccer players; however, a high RTP rate in a reasonable time was seen after ACLR. Nevertheless, professional soccer players experienced a short-term decline in their performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Speed is an important prerequisite in soccer. Therefore, a large number of tests have been developed aiming to investigate several speed skills relevant to soccer. This systematic review aimed to examine the validity and reliability of speed tests used in adult soccer players. Methods: A systematic search was performed according to the PRISMA guidelines. Studies were included if they investigated speed tests in adult soccer players and reported validity (construct and criterion) or reliability (intraday and interday) data. The tests were categorized into linear-sprint, repeated-sprint, change-of-direction sprint, agility, and tests incorporating combinations of these skills. Results: In total, 90 studies covering 167 tests were included. Linear-sprint (n = 67) and change-of-direction sprint (n = 60) were studied most often, followed by combinations of the aforementioned (n = 21) and repeated-sprint tests (n = 15). Agility tests were examined fewest (n = 4). Mainly based on construct validity studies, acceptable validity was reported for the majority of the tests in all categories, except for agility tests, where no validity study was identified. Regarding intraday and interday reliability, ICCs>0.75 and CVs<3.0% were evident for most of the tests in all categories. These results applied for total and average times. In contrast, measures representing fatigue such as percent decrement scores indicated inconsistent validity findings. Regarding reliability, ICCs were 0.11–0.49 and CVs were 16.8–51.0%. Conclusion: Except for agility tests, several tests for all categories with acceptable levels of validity and high levels of reliability for adult soccer players are available. Caution should be given when interpreting fatigue measures, e.g., percent decrement scores. Given the lack of accepted gold-standard tests for each category, researchers and practitioners may base their test selection on the broad database provided in this systematic review. Future research should pay attention to the criterion validity examining the relationship between test results and match parameters as well as to the development and evaluation of soccer-specific agility tests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Motricidade is the property of Silabas Didaticas LDA and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

The developmental activities of 328 elite soccer players aged under-16 years from Brazil, England, France, Ghana, Mexico, Portugal and Sweden were examined using retrospective recall in a cross-sectional research design. The activities were compared to the early diversification, early specialisation, and early engagement pathways. Players started their involvement in soccer at approximately 5 years of age. During childhood, they engaged in soccer practice for a mean value of 185.7, s = 124.0 h · year−1, in soccer play for 186.0, s = 125.3 h · year−1, and in soccer competition for 37.1, s = 28.9 h · year−1. A mean value of 2.3, s = 1.6 sports additional to soccer were engaged in by 229 players during childhood. Players started their participation in an elite training academy at 11 to 12 years of age. During adolescence, they engaged in soccer practice for a mean value of 411.9, s = 184.3 h · year−1, in soccer play for 159.7, s = 195.0 h · year−1, and in soccer competition for 66.9, s = 48.8 h · year−1. A mean value of 2.5, s = 1.8 sports other than soccer were engaged in by 132 players during this period. There were some relatively minor differences between countries, but generally the developmental activities of the players followed a mixture of the early engagement and specialisation pathways, rather than early diversification. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

This work tests determinants of the indebtedness of Portuguese soccer teams using the sample of teams playing in the Portuguese major league from the 1999–2000 season until the 2005–2006 season. This is a major issue related to both the medium-term solvency of the Portuguese professional soccer sector and the solvency of the European soccer market. Our results show that past debt obligations, the market area, the rank of each team and, particularly, the costs of wages exert a positive and significant effect on the debt ratio for each soccer team. These results support suggestions seeking to promote the sustainability of the soccer sector, namely, the imposition of wage caps, a new regulation limiting the increasing debt ratios and the redistribution of TV rights via a more egalitarian system. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Without doubt, football is omnipresent in the Portuguese public (and private) sphere. Some speak about the 'footballizaton of Portuguese society', and criticize the hegemony of football in Portuguese culture, along with it the close (and sometimes dangerous) connections between football and politics. What is so interesting about this phenomenon is that it is juxtaposed with other facts, such as stadium attendance being surprisingly low. The essay brings to the forefront the particularities of the Portuguese football social formation case by taking these two current realities as a point of departure. In analysing stadium attendance over three decades against specific historical backgrounds, the authors present six different factors which explain the paradox and come to the conclusion that both realities are not contradictory - but partly determining each other. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although some prospective studies have shown that many successful young athletes do not maintain the same level of success when they reach adulthood, there is still a lack of information regarding athletes who started their international involvement at early ages. Therefore, the purpose of the present study was to investigate the international pathway of male and female athletes in different sports from the moment of their competitive debut, in order to determine how many international athletes at early ages competed or did not compete internationally as juniors and/or seniors. The sample included 395 athletes (soccer, volleyball, swimming and judo), born between 1974 and 1981, who could have competed in their national squads between 1988 and 2008. Results showed that only a third of international pre-junior athletes reappeared as senior athletes, confirming the difficulties of predicting late success based on early identification and selection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]