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Knowledge about social and psychological risk factors for initial cigarette smoking experience (ICSE) is sparse. The present study aimed to estimate the prevalence of ICSE and to examine the psychological and social factors related to ICSE. In a cross-sectional survey, 1,511 male college students were recruited using multistage sampling techniques from four universities located within the city of Ilam, Iran. Self-administered multiple-choice questionnaires were distributed to students from March to June 2013. Risk factors for ICSE were evaluated using logistic regression models. Participants were 22.3 ± 2.4 years of age. ICSE prevalence was 30.6%. In multivariable adjusted analysis, risk taking behavior (odds ratio [OR] = 1.61; 95% confidence interval [CI] = 1.11-2.33), perceived peer smoking prevalence (OR = 2.48; 95% CI = 1.03-5.97), positive thoughts about smoking (OR = 1.06; 95% CI = 1.02-1.10), high self-efficacy (OR = 0.95, 95% CI [0.93, 0.98]), presence in smokers' gathering (OR = 4.45; 95% CI = 2.88-6.81), comity of smokers (OR = 2.56; 95% CI = 1.66, 3.92), very hard access to cigarettes (OR = 2.20; 95% CI = 1.16-4.16), close friends' medium reaction toward smoking (OR = 1.38; 95% CI = 1.02-1.88), and sporting activity (OR = 0.74; 95% CI = 0.56-0.98) were significantly associated with ICSE. This study identified that a combination of psychological and social variables account for up to 78% of the probability of ICSE. The most important protective factor against ICSE was physical activity, whereas the most important risk factor for ICSE was frequent gathering in the presence of smokers., (© The Author(s) 2014.)

The present study aimed to estimate the prevalence of smoking status and its associated factors in Iranian adolescents and a meta-analysis of recent cross-sectional studies in order to estimate the corresponding prevalence for all Iranian adolescents. In a cross-sectional study, 1064 male high school students in Zanjan city (northwest of Iran) were recruited. A self-administered questionnaire was used for smoking status and associated factors. Through the meta-analysis, all relevant published studies were reviewed. Almost one-third of adolescents (34.2%, n=354) have experienced smoking either experimentally (23.4%, n=242), or regularly (10.8%, n=112). Multivariate analysis showed that older age (OR=1.20; 95% CI: 1.05-1.37), risky behaviors (OR=1.83; 1.25-2.68), Tramadol medication (OR=2.19; 1.54-3.11), low self-esteem (OR=1.07; 1.03-1.11), positive attitude toward smoking (OR=1.15; 1.09-1.21), positive thinking about smoking (OR=1.07; 1.01-1.14) and having smoker friends (OR=1.94; 1.36-2.77) were significantly associated with cigarette smoking in adolescents. Meta-analysis results showed that 7% of Iranian adolescents are regular smokers and 27% are experimenters. Increasing prevalence of smoking in Iranian adolescents is a major concern for public health. Controlling risky behaviors and increasing health education are recommended., (Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.)

Background: The combined dose response effects of pregnancy cigarette smoke exposure on childhood overweight, obesity and short stature have not been reported., Method: A community based cross-sectional survey of 3038 children aged 5-11 years from 15 primary schools in Merseyside, UK. Self-completed parental questionnaires were used for family characteristics, socio-economic status and parental smoking practices. Children were measured for height and weight and z-scores calculated for parental smoking categories., Results: Of 689 (34.0%) mothers who smoked during pregnancy 50.5% smoked ten or more cigarettes daily (heavy smokers). Children of maternal non-smokers had prevalence estimates for overweight, obesity and short stature of 25, 9.6 and 3.2%, respectively. Prevalence estimates were higher in children of mothers who were heavy smokers during pregnancy, 31.5% (P = 0.001), 15.6% (P < 0.001) and 5.5% (P = 0.001), respectively. Mean height for age z-scores was lower among heavy maternal (P < 0.001) and paternal smokers (P < 0.01) compared to non-smokers. Childhood overweight, obesity or short stature were all associated with heavy maternal smoking during pregnancy (all P < 0.001). Mean body mass index (BMI) z-scores were higher in boys of mothers who smoked (P = 0.043). The adjusted odds ratio for short stature in children of heavy maternal smokers was 2.76 (95% CI 1.21-6.33) and 4.28 (1.37-13.37) if both parents were heavy smokers. The adjusted OR for obesity in children of maternal smokers was 1.61(1.19-2.18). The population attributable risk for short stature was 8.8% (1.1-22.7) for heavy maternal smokers., Conclusion: A dose-response association was observed between pregnancy smoking exposure, short stature and obesity.

ADHD prevalence has risen in parallel with rising prevalence of pregnancy smoking and childhood obesity. The objective was to determine the epidemiological association of pregnancy smoking and childhood obesity with ADHD. A cross-sectional community study was conducted in 2006 using a parental questionnaire. A total of 1,074 schoolchildren aged 5-11 years were enrolled from 15 primary schools in a lower socio-economic area of Merseyside. ADHD was defined by the question "does your child have Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, (ADHD), which has been diagnosed by a doctor?" The prevalence estimates for childhood obesity, maternal smoking during pregnancy and childhood ADHD were 14.9% (116/777), 28.0% (269/955), and 3.4% (32/945), respectively. ADHD prevalence increased fivefold in children with obesity (RR, 4.80, 95% CI 2.2-10.4, P < 0.001) and more than twofold in children of mothers who smoked during pregnancy (RR, 2.44, 95% CI 1.2-4.9, P = 0.02). Regression analysis adjusting for obesity, overweight, maternal smoking during pregnancy, heavy maternal smoking, household member smoking during pregnancy, doctor-diagnosed asthma, preterm birth, and low birthweight showed significant independent associations of ADHD prevalence with obesity (AOR, 4.66, 95% CI 1.57-13.89, P = 0.006) and pregnancy smoking (AOR, 3.19, 95% CI 1.08-9.49, P = 0.04). There was a positive dose-response association of ADHD with the number of maternal cigarettes smoked during pregnancy. Measures to reduce both smoking among pregnant women and childhood obesity might reduce prevalence of childhood ADHD.

Background: A recent decline in the male:female (M:F) sex ratio may relate to pregnancy cigarette smoke exposure., Aim: To assess trends and cigarette exposure dose-response effects on the sex ratio., Subjects and Methods: A retrospective analysis was carried out of deliveries at the Liverpool Women's Hospital between 1998 and 2003, and of deliveries reported in community surveys from the same area in 1998 and 2006., Results: For the hospital sample, the M:F sex ratio was 1.14 if no parent smoked, and 0.77 when both parents smoked during the mother's pregnancy (p < 0.001). Heavy maternal smokers (>10 cigarettes per day) were more likely to deliver a female baby than light smokers (p < 0.001). Smoking was associated with increased likelihood of female birth controlling for birth year, socio-economic status, alcohol exposure, maternal haemoglobin and body mass index (adjusted OR: 1.41, 95% CI 1.12-1.92, p < 0.001). In the community sample controlling for socio-economic status the ratios were 1.13 (95% CI 1.03-1.24, p = 0.015) in 1998 and 1.31 (95% CI 1.16-1.48, p < 0.001) in 2006. Secular trends showed decreasing ratios in hospital and community samples for both smokers and non-smokers., Conclusion: Pregnancy cigarette smoking increased the proportion of female births with evidence for a dose-response association.

Objectives: To determine the role of maternal CYP1A1, GSTT1, and GSTM1 metabolic gene polymorphisms in modulating the association between pregnancy smoking exposure and fetal growth restriction., Study Design: A case-control study was conducted to investigate if the association of pregnancy smoking and birth outcome was modulated by maternal gene polymorphisms. A total of 90 mothers with an IUGR baby (cases) and 180 mothers without IUGR (controls) were enrolled., Results: Almost half of smokers who carried a CYP1A1 variant (51.3%), GSTT1 null (43.6%), or GSTM1 null genotypes (64.1%) delivered a baby with IUGR. Smokers with the variant CYP1A1 "aa" genotype had babies with lower mean birthweight than non-smokers with the same genotype (p=0.004). An interaction test showed increased prevalence of IUGR in smokers with the CYP1A1 (Aa/aa) variant (adjusted OR, 1.9; 95% CI, 1.4-5.5, p=0.01), or with the GSTT1 null (AOR, 1.5; 1.1-3.1, p=0.001), or GSTM1 null genotypes (AOR, 1.5; 1.2-3.7, p=0.001)., Conclusions: Risk of fetal growth restriction in mothers who smoked during pregnancy was modulated by maternal metabolic gene polymorphisms. The genetic control of the conversion of toxic metabolites of tobacco smoke to less damaging substances is important for maternal and fetal health.

Background: Prenatal smoking exposure causes intrauterine fetal growth restriction (IUGR), although its effects on fetal proportionality are less clearly defined., Aim: The present study assessed fetal proportionality in babies with IUGR using maternal salivary cotinine to indicate maternal smoking exposure., Subjects and Methods: A case-control study at the Liverpool Women's Hospital, UK of babies with asymmetric and symmetric IUGR and non-growth restricted babies was carried out., Results: 270 white women including 90 IUGR cases and 180 controls were enrolled. Asymmetry presented in 52.2% of IUGR cases. Geometric mean maternal cotinine concentration was higher with asymmetric (p=0.002) than symmetric IUGR (p=0.07), when compared to controls. Maternal smoking exposure was independently associated with asymmetric IUGR (OR 2.4, 95% CI, 1.5-4.4, p

Objective: To assess the influence of socio-economic status on pregnancy outcomes in smoking mothers., Study Design: Retrospective analysis., Methods: Parent-completed questionnaires addressing pregnancy smoking patterns and birth outcomes. Were distributed via children aged 5-11 years attending 10 primary schools in Merseyside. Data from three community-based cross-sectional surveys undertaken in 1993, 1998 and 2001 were analysed. Townsend score was used as an indicator of household socioeconomic status., Results: 82.2 percent (n = 3730) of respondents were classified as low (disadvantaged) socio-economic status. One-third of mothers smoked during pregnancy and this proportion was significantly higher among disadvantaged than advantaged categories (37.7% versus 14.6%; p < 0.001). The logistic regression analysis showed that only maternal smoking during pregnancy was a significant risk factor for adverse birth outcomes when socioeconomic variables were controlled., Conclusion: Birth outcomes were worse in babies of smoking mothers during pregnancy independent of household's socio-economic status.

Introduction: Cigarette smoking amongst pregnant adolescents is a preventable risk factor associated with low birthweight (<2,500 g), preterm birth (<37 weeks) and infant mortality. The aim of this study was to compare birth outcomes of adolescents who smoke during pregnancy with those who do not and to construct their birthweight-for-gestational-age curves., Methods: A retrospective cohort analysis of 534 adolescents (10 cigarettes daily had babies with larger birthweight reduction (P = 0.001)., Conclusion: Almost half of all adolescents smoked during their pregnancy. Birthweight-for-gestational-age curves of smoking adolescents showed a marked fall-off in weight from 36 weeks of gestation, and at least 10% of adolescent smokers showed fetal growth restriction from before 32 weeks of gestation.

Background: Smoking is preventable factor for pregnancy outcomes such as low birth weight (LBW). In this study, we assessed the effects of smoking cessation in pregnancy period on the birth weight in Randomized Controlled Trial studies (RCTs). Methods: International databases of Pub Med, Scopus, and Web of Science, by the MeSH heading and/or additional terms, were searched to assess relevant studies in systematic possess. I2 statistics was used to assess of heterogeneity. Pooled effects size was obtained by random effects model. Meta-regression was used to explore of heterogeneity using Stata software version 12 (Stata Corp, College Station, TX). Results: A total 16 RCTs, 6192 women were enrolled to assess of smoking cessation in pregnancy period on the birth weight. Relative risk (RR) of not smoking at the end of pregnancy in intervention group was 2.47 (95% CI: 1.73-3.20). The odds ratio (OR) for effect of smoking cessation on LBW was 0.65 (95% CI: 0.42-0.88) and standardized mean difference (SMD) was significantly increased in the intervention group, 0.28 (95% CI: 0.05-0.50). Conclusions: Results of this study approve results of previous RCTs that smoking cessation in pregnancy is a good practical action to prevention of LBW in infants. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: An association between cancer survival and socioeconomic status (SES) has been evaluated for many different cancers but calculating socioeconomic inequality in survival is very late. In this study we aimed to determine associations between socioeconomic inequality and survival risk factors in patients with gastric carcinoma (GC). Methods: In this cross-sectional study, we enrolled 235 patients with confirmed GC. SES data were retrieved from three sources pathological records, official death certificates and telephone interviews. Polychoric correlation matrix was used to reduce the number of variables. Inequality was measured by concentration index (CI) and we decomposed CI to determine contribution in inequality. All analyses were performed by standard statistical software STATA (version 11.2). Results: The overall CI for late diagnosis (2 stage onwards) and positive history of smoking were -0.020 (95% CI = -0.041 - 0.004) and -0.105 (95% CI = -0.110 - -0.076), respectively. Results of decomposition shows past medical history of gastrointestinal diseases (29%) and history of smoking (18%) have the largest contributions in inequality in GC survival. Conclusions: Results of this study showed risk factors in GC survival such as smoking, having a past medical history of gastrointestinal diseases and late diagnosis are more prevalent among people of lower SES. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Background: There is little information about the possible influence of lifestyle and etiologic risk factors on survival amongst patients with gastric cancer. Methods: We recruited a consecutive series of 249 patients with definite diagnosis of gastric cancer who had been hospitalized in Towhid Hospital, Sanandaj, Kurdistan Province in Western Iran during a five-year period from 2006 until 2011. Survival rate was calculated according to the Kaplan-Meier and log rank statistical methods. Cox hazard regression was used to investigate the effect of the variables and adjust for the effect of age. Results: According to univariate analysis, related variables that included age, gender, Residence, histology grade, histology type, familial history of gastrointestinal cancer and mental illness during the disease had no significant effects on survival rate variation. Significant independent factors on survival included past medical history of gastrointestinal diseases (P-value = 0.010), tobacco smoking (P-value = 0.012), and early diagnosis (P-value = 0.008). Cox-regression analysis of demographic, lifestyle and histological factors with >45 years of age as the reference revealed that patients 46-65 years of age at diagnosis (HR=0.602; 95% CI=0.250-1.44; P=0.256) and those >66 years of age (HR=1.07, 95% CI=0.46-2.50, P⩽0.001) had an increased risk for disease progression and death. Conclusions: Past medical history of gastrointestinal diseases, tobacco smoking and early stage diagnosis might influence the long-term survival of patients with gastric cancer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

DHD prevalence has risen in parallel with rising prevalence of pregnancy smoking and childhood obesity. The objective was to determine the epidemiological association of pregnancy smoking and childhood obesity with ADHD. A cross-sectional community study was conducted in 2006 using a parental questionnaire. A total of 1,074 schoolchildren aged 5-11 years were enrolled from 15 primary schools in a lower socio-economic area of Merseyside. ADHD was defined by the question 'does your child have Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, (ADHD), which has been diagnosed by a doctor?' The prevalence estimates for childhood obesity, maternal smoking during pregnancy and childhood ADHD were 14.9% (116/777), 28.0% (269/955), and 3.4% (32/945), respectively. ADHD prevalence increased fivefold in children with obesity (RR, 4.80, 95% CI 2.2-10.4, P < 0.001) and more than twofold in children of mothers who smoked during pregnancy (RR, 2.44, 95% CI 1.2-4.9, P = 0.02). Regression analysis adjusting for obesity, overweight, maternal smoking during pregnancy, heavy maternal smoking, household member smoking during pregnancy, doctor-diagnosed asthma, preterm birth, and low birthweight showed significant independent associations of ADHD prevalence with obesity (AOR, 4.66, 95% CI 1.57-13.89, P = 0.006) and pregnancy smoking (AOR, 3.19, 95% CI 1.08-9.49, P = 0.04). There was a positive dose-response association of ADHD with the number of maternal cigarettes smoked during pregnancy. Measures to reduce both smoking among pregnant women and childhood obesity might reduce prevalence of childhood ADHD. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The role of salivary cotinine for monitoring maternal pregnancy smoking as an alternative to self-reported smoking exposure is not well established. This was a case-control study to assess the correlation between maternal self-reported pregnancy smoking exposure and postnatal salivary cotinine levels in 90 mothers with a baby with fetal growth restriction (cases) and 180 mothers with a normal birthweight for gestational age infant (controls) attending the Liverpool Women's Hospital for delivery between 2004 and 2005. Cases had increased exposure to cigarette smoke during pregnancy compared to controls. Using the salivary cotinine assay as the reference two-thirds of women, both cases and controls, correctly reported their smoking status during pregnancy. There are limitations with the accuracy of self-reported pregnancy smoking as an exposure indicator, especially in mothers delivering babies with Intrauterine fetal growth restriction (IUGR) who are also those most likely to smoke. In view of this there is a need to consider using salivary cotinine measurements In antenatal settings in order to facilitate monitoring of smoking exposure in pregnancy and for evaluation of deterrent interventions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]