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Salt stress of soybean is a serious problem because it reduces plant growth and seed yield. To investigate the salt-tolerant mechanism of soybean, a plant-derived smoke (PDS) solution was used. Three-day-old soybeans were subjected to PDS solution under 100 mM NaCl for 2 days, resulting in PDS solution improving soybean root growth, even under salt stress. Under the same condition, proteins were analyzed using the proteomic technique. Differential abundance proteins were associated with transport/formaldehyde catabolic process/sucrose metabolism/glutathione metabolism/cell wall organization in the biological process and membrane/Golgi in the cellular component with or without PDS solution under salt stress. Immuno-blot analysis confirmed that osmotin, alcohol dehydrogenase, and sucrose synthase increased with salt stress and decreased with additional PDS solution; however, H + ATPase showed opposite effects. Cellulose synthase and xyloglucan endotransglucosylase/hydrolase increased with salt and decreased with additional PDS solution. Furthermore, glycoproteins decreased with salt stress and recovered with additional treatment. As mitochondrion-related events, the contents of ATP and gamma-aminobutyric acid increased with salt stress and recovered with additional treatment. These results suggest that PDS solution improves the soybean growth by alleviating salt stress. Additionally, the regulation of energy metabolism, protein glycosylation, and cell wall construction might be an important factor for the acquisition of salt tolerance in soybean.

The role of plant-derived smoke, which is changed in mineral-nutrient status, in enhancing germination and post-germination was effectively established. The majority of plant species positively respond to plant-derived smoke in the enhancement of seed germination and plant growth. The stimulatory effect of plant-derived smoke on normally growing and stressed plants may help to reduce economic and human resources, which validates its candidature as a biostimulant. Plant-derived smoke potentially facilitates the early harvest and increases crop productivity. Karrikins and cyanohydrin are the active compound in plant-derived smoke. In this review, data from the latest research explaining the effect of plant-derived smoke on morphological, physiological, biochemical, and molecular responses of plants are presented. The pathway for reception and interaction of compounds of plant-derived smoke at the cellular and molecular level of plant is described and discussed.

Flooding negatively affects the growth of soybean, whereas the plant-derived smoke enhances seedling growth of crops. To clarify the mechanism underlying the recovery from flooding stress, proteomic analysis was performed based on morphological results. Growth of soybean seedlings was inhibited under flooding stress, but it recovered after water removal following treatment with plant-derived smoke. Sucrose/starch metabolism and glycolysis were suppressed in smoke-treated flooded soybean compared to flooded soybean. The protein abundance and gene expression of O-fucosyltransferase family proteins related to the cell wall were higher in smoke-treated flooded soybean than in flooded soybean. Protein abundance and gene expression of peptidyl-prolyl cis-trans isomerase and Bowman-Birk proteinase isoinhibitor D-II were lower in smoke-treated flooded soybean than in flooded soybean. Taken together, these results suggest that plant-derived smoke enhances soybean growth during recovery from flooding stress through the balance of sucrose/starch metabolism and glycolysis. Furthermore, the accumulation of cell-wall related protein might be an important factor contributing to recovery of soybean from flooding stress., Biological Significance: Flooding negatively affects the growth of soybean, whereas the plant-derived smoke enhances the seedling growth of crops. To clarify the mechanism underlying the recovery from flooding stress, proteomic analysis of soybean with different treatments including normal conditions, flooding stress, and flooding stress in the presence of plant-derived smoke was performed in this study. Growth of soybean seedlings was inhibited under flooding stress, however, it recovered with plant-derived smoke treatment during recovery from flooding stress. Sucrose/starch metabolism and glycolysis were suppressed in smoke-treated flooded soybean compared to flooded soybean, which suggests altered sucrose/starch metabolism and glycolysis contribute to soybean growth recovery from flood stress. Furthermore, the protein abundance and gene expression of O-fucosyltransferase family proteins related to the cell wall was higher in smoke-treated flooded soybean than in flooded soybean, which might be an important factor contributing to the recovery of soybean from flooding stress., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Plant-derived smoke plays a key role in seed germination and plant growth. To investigate the effect of plant-derived smoke on chickpea, a gel-free/label-free proteomic technique was used. Germination percentage, root/shoot length, and fresh biomass were increased in chickpea treated with 2000 ppm plant-derived smoke within 6 days. On treatment with 2000 ppm plant-derived smoke for 6 days, the abundance of 90 proteins including glycolysis-related proteins significantly changed in chickpea root. Proteins related to signaling and transport were increased; however, protein metabolism, cell, and cell wall were decreased. The sucrose synthase for starch degradation was increased and total soluble sugar was induced. The proteins for nitrate pathway were increased and nitrate content was improved. On the other hand, although secondary metabolism related proteins were decreased, flavonoid contents were increased. Based on proteomic and immuno-blot analyses, proteins related to redox homeostasis were decreased and increased in root and shoot, respectively. Furthermore, fructose‑bisphosphate aldolase was increased; while, phosphotransferase and phosphoglycero mutase were decreased in glycolysis. In addition, phosphoglyceraldehyde‑3‑phosphate dehydrogenase and glutamine synthetase related genes were up-regulated. These results suggest that plant-derived smoke improves early stage of growth in chickpea with the balance of many cascades such as glycolysis, redox homeostasis, and secondary metabolism., Biological Significance: The current study examined the effects of plant-derived smoke on root of chickpea seedlings using a gel-free/label-free proteomic technique. Based on functional categorization of results from proteomics, proteins related to glycolysis, signaling, transport, protein metabolism, cell wall, and cell were predominantly changed in chickpea. The proteins related to carbohydrate and nitrate pathways were increased, while, those of secondary metabolism were decreased. Physiological analysis indicated that flavonoid, total soluble sugar, and nitrate content were increased in root of chickpea treated with plant-derived smoke for 6 days. Moreover, accumulated protein abundance of glyceraldehyde‑3‑phosphate dehydrogenase and fructose-bisphosphate aldolase was in agreement with immuno-blot results, which suggests that glycolysis process might be enhanced in root of chickpea in response to plant-derived smoke., (Copyright © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.)

Nowadays, public concerns regarding deleterious effect of lead (Pb) is on rise due to its abundance and toxic effect on plants and other living organisms. In plants, it has no noticeable biological importance but can cause various morphological, physiological, and biochemical malfunctions. To evaluate the remediating potential of plant-derived smoke (Cymbopogon jwarancusa), a pot culture experiment was designed to investigate the physiological, biochemical, metabolic, and antioxidant parameters of roots in lead (0 (control), 500, 1000, and 1500 ppm)-contaminated soil. Under dark condition, seeds were primed in smoke solution with two dilutions (1:500 and 1:1000) for 24 h. With an increasing concentration of Pb stress, fresh and dry weight and total nitrogen and protein contents decreased significantly while an increase was observed in smoke-treated seed. With increasing Pb stress level, metabolites (i.e., proline, total soluble sugar, total soluble protein, glycine betaine), and antioxidants (i.e., superoxide dismutase, peroxidase, catalase, ascorbate peroxidase, malonyldialdehyde, and H 2 O 2 ), contents of roots were increased in non-treated (without smoke treatment) samples, whereas comparatively, a low level of alteration in aforementioned metabolites and antioxidative parameters was observed in the seeds treated with smoke solution. These results suggest a positive role of smoke in alleviating lead-induced changes in roots of two cultivated cultivars of rice grown in Pb-contaminated soil.

The present study was designed to investigate and compare the effects of plant-derived smoke (PDS) and auxin (IAA and IBA) on maize growth under the application of 2,3,5-triiodo benzoic acid (TIBA). For this purpose, indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) and indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), each at a concentration of 10 ppm, along with PDS at a ratio of 1:500 (v/v) were used alone and in combination with 10 ppm of TIBA. The results indicate that the germination percentage (%) of maize seeds was enhanced under IAA, IBA and PDS treatment. However, IAA and IBA resulted in reduced germination when applied in combination with TIBA. Importantly, the germination percentage (%) was improved by PDS under TIBA treatment. The analysis of seedling height, length of leaves, and number of primary, seminal and secondary/lateral roots showed improvement under individual treatments of IAA and IBA, PDS and PDS + TIBA treatment, while these values were reduced under IAA + TIBA and IBA + TIBA application. Chlorophyll content, total soluble sugars and antioxidative enzymatic activity including POD and SOD increased in seedlings treated with PDS alone or both PDS and TIBA, while in seedlings treated with IAA and TIBA or IBA and TIBA, their levels were decreased. APX and CAT responded in the opposite way—under IAA, IBA and PDS treatment, their levels were found to be lower than the control (simple water treatment), while TIBA treatment with either IAA, IBA or PDS enhanced their levels as compared to the control. These results reveal that PDS has the potential to alleviate the inhibitory effects of TIBA. This study highlights the role of PDS in preventing TIBA from blocking the auxin entry sites. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wheat is an important staple food crop for one-third of the global population; however, its growth is reduced by flooding. On the other hand, a plant-derived smoke solution enhances plant growth; however, its mechanism is not fully understood. To reveal the effects of the plant-derived smoke solution on wheat under flooding, morphological, biochemical, and proteomic analyses were conducted. The plant-derived smoke solution improved wheat-leaf growth, even under flooding. According to the functional categorization of proteomic results, oppositely changed proteins were correlated with photosynthesis, glycolysis, biotic stress, and amino-acid metabolism with or without the plant-derived smoke solution under flooding. Immunoblot analysis confirmed that RuBisCO activase and RuBisCO large/small subunits, which decreased under flooding, were recovered by the application of the plant-derived smoke solution. Furthermore, the contents of chlorophylls a and b significantly decreased by flooding stress; however, they were recovered by the application of the plant-derived smoke solution. In glycolysis, fructose-bisphosphate aldolase and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase decreased with the application of the plant-derived smoke solution under flooding as compared with flooding alone. Additionally, glutamine, glutamic acid, aspartic acid, and serine decreased under flooding; however, they were recovered by the plant-derived smoke solution. These results suggest that the application of the plant-derived smoke solution improves the recovery of wheat growth through the regulation of photosynthesis and glycolysis even under flooding conditions. Furthermore, the plant-derived smoke solution might promote wheat tolerance against flooding stress through the regulation of amino-acid metabolism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Smoke and salinity are environmental hazards. Smoke produced DNA damage, inflammatory, and oxidative stress in humans while salinity reduced plant yield. However, smoke from plants is beneficial towards plant growth. In this study, smoke of two plants,Buhania varegata(1:1000 and 1:5000 dilutions (v/v)) andCymbopogon jwarancusa(1:500 and 1:1000), were used to determine effects on different physiological and biochemical parameters in rice Basmati-385 (B-385) and Shaheen Basmati under different saline concentrations (control: 50, 100, and 150 mM). With increasing salinity, germination%, seedling growth, K+, Ca+, cell membrane stability, and total nitrogen and protein contents were decreased while Na+content increased. However, seeds primed with different dilution of smoke significantly diminished the adverse effects of salinity and shown to produce positive responses in all of the above parameters. The most effective dilutions were 1:5000 forBuhania varegataand C-500 forCymbopogon jwarancusa. It seems that priming with plant smoke solution is a potent stimulant for plant growth exerting a significant role in physiology and biochemistry of rice plants under saline condition. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

To investigate the mechanism of promotive effect of plant-derived smoke on the soybean growth, a gel-free/label-free proteomics was performed. Smoke solutions were irrigated on soybean or supplied simultaneously with flooding stress. Morphological and physiological analyses were performed for the confirmation of proteomic result. Metabolomic change was investigated to correlate proteomic change with metabolism regulation. Under normal condition, the length of root including hypocotyl increased in soybean treated with 2000 ppm plant-derived smoke within 4 days, as well as nitric oxide content. Proteins related to protein synthesis especially arginine metabolism were altered; metabolites related to amino acid, carboxylic acids, and sugars were mostly altered. Integrated analysis of omics data indicated that plant-derived smoke regulated nitrogen‑carbon transformation through ornithine synthesis pathway and promoted soybean normal growth. Under flooding, the number of lateral roots increased with root tip degradation in soybean treated with smoke solutions. Proteins related to ubiquitin-proteasome pathway were altered and led to sacrifice-for-survival-mechanism-driven degradation of root tip in soybean, which enabled accumulation of metabolites and guaranteed lateral root development during soybean recovery after flooding. These findings suggest that plant-derived smoke improves early stage of growth in soybean with regulation of ornithine-synthesis pathway and ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. Plant-derived smoke plays a key role in crop growth, however, the understanding of soybean in response to smoke treatment remains premature. Therefore, gel-free/label-free proteomic analysis was used for comprehensive study on the dual effect of smoke to soybean under normal and flooding conditions. Under normal condition, plant-derived smoke regulated nitrogen‑carbon transformation through ornithine synthesis pathway and resulted in the increase of the length of root including hypocotyl in soybean within 4 days. Under flooding condition, plant-derived smoke induced inhibition of ubiquitin-proteasome pathway and led to sacrifice-for-survival-mechanism-driven degradation of root tip in soybean, which enabled accumulation of metabolites and promoted lateral root development during soybean recovery after flooding. Unlabelled Image • The length of root including hypocotyl increased in soybean treated with smoke within 4 days. • Flooding with smoke increased number of lateral roots with the root-tip degradation in soybean. • Smoke promoted nitrogen-carbon transformation through ornithine synthesis pathway under normal condition. • Smoke led to cell death through ubiquitin-proteasome system enabling metabolite accumulation for recovery. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]