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The objective of the study was to assess the determinants of the utilization of digital technologies by smallholder farmers in South Africa. A cross-sectional survey of 250 smallholder farmers was purposively sampled from Port St Johns and Ingquza Hill Local Municipalities. Binary and ordered logistic regression were used to analyse the data. The results show that 55% of the smallholder farmers were using digital technologies. Out of these, 40% were using smartphones and radio. Close to 47% of the smallholder farmers who were using digital technologies were using them to some extent and 65% had been using digital technologies for a period of 1–4 years. 89% of the smallholder farmers using digital technologies indicated that they are beneficial and 83% had opted to continue using digital technologies to increase their skills and knowledge. However, 44% of the smallholder farmers who had opted to discontinue the use of digital technologies indicated that these technologies were not beneficial for them. Overall, 85% of the smallholder farmers would recommend the use of digital technologies to other farmers. Factors such as age, educational level, marital status, full-time farming, and land size affected the utilization of digital technologies while age, marital status, educational level, full-time farming, household size, non-crop producing, and tenure affected the extent of digital technology utilization. The study concludes that the partial utilization of low-tech digital technologies is a socio-economic driver. Recommendations include the promotion of digital technologies, especially high-tech technologies, taking into account the socio-economic circumstances of smallholder farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural research for development agencies in sub-Saharan Africa increasingly implements innovation platforms (IPs) to address institutional barriers to innovation in smallholder agriculture. This research aims to understand the activities, actions or arrangements that were mediated by a multilevel set of IPs to sustain the use of livestock feeding practices in the Ethiopian Highlands. Data was collected two years after the multilevel IPs had been phased out to ascertain if innovation outcomes had been sustained beyond the life of the project. The study identified specific IP interventions that constrained or enabled sustained use of the livestock innovations among two groups of smallholders based on their livestock production objective, i.e., commercially oriented or subsistence. Where the feed innovations had been tailored to specific enterprises and aligned to farmers' production goals, such as improved dairy farming, they were sustained. Transitioning to a livestock feed system was enabled in the case of commercially oriented smallholders and remained a challenge for subsistence-oriented smallholders, especially where access to forage seeds and affordable input services is limited. Finally mechanisms and strategies to inform similar future interventions to support the development of different groups of farmers along the value chain to achieve impact beyond project period are presented. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Nutrition-sensitive agriculture is an approach that aims to ensure the production of affordable, safe, culturally appropriate, and nutritious foods in sufficient quantity and quality to meet dietary needs. This study aims to examine the production pathway by which smallholder farmers adopt nutrition-sensitive agriculture in northwest Ethiopia. Data were collected from 478 randomly sampled households through a structured questionnaire-based survey, observations, and group discussions. Descriptive and inferential statistics were employed for analysis. Binary logistic regression analysis was used to estimate the influences of demographic, socioeconomic, and institutional explanatory variables on the production of various food groups in households. Arable land owned by households, the use of irrigation, access to the nearest markets, contacts with agricultural extension workers, and management practices affect plant-sourced food production. On the other hand, the number of livestock owned, the total crop produced, and contacts with extension workers affected animal-sourced food production. However, different factors, such as technological, institutional, and managerial challenges, that include dependency on rain-fed and free-grazing-based traditional herding systems adversely affect the production pathway to nutrition-sensitive agriculture. The study concludes that improving agricultural extension services, promoting small-scale irrigation schemes, and introducing improved animal feeding with improved crop and livestock management techniques could significantly contribute to increased household availability of diversified foods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Timely and accurate extraction of crop planting units plays a critical role in crop yield estimation, soil management, food supplies, and disaster warnings. However, precisely mapping crop types is challenging in smallholder farming systems due to heterogeneous and mixed pixels, where field sizes are small, and crop types are very diverse. In this paper, the crop type system of Huocheng County in northwest China as an example area, crop classification feature variables are constructed using Sentinel-2 remote sensing images, and combining the ReliefF algorithm, three feature selection classification models are established by 3092 crop type sampling points data. The crop planting units are extracted using pixel-based and object-based classification methods, respectively, and unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) data assess the accuracy as ground truth. The Sentinel-2 image based smallholder crops classification results indicate that: The effective combination of optimal input feature variables selection and classification models significantly improves crop classification accuracy. This is particularly evident when integrating this approach into pixel-based classification, addressing challenges such as low pixel classification accuracy in regions of this type. The validation results from UAV data also confirm these findings. At validation points 2, 3, and 4, pixel-based classification demonstrates significantly higher accuracy compared to object-based classification, with pixel-based classification accuracy improving by 9.16%, 7.83%, and 31.83%, respectively. Although the UAV validation accuracy does not reach a high level, pixel-based classification remains the optimal choice for smallholder crop classification. This method offers new insights and references for research related to the classification of smallholder crops with complex planting structures. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Smallholder banana farmers in Kenya face declining farm productivity and low market prices due to a fragmented, broker-dominated market. While the Kenya National Banana Development Strategy promotes contract farming as a potential solution, farmer participation remains surprisingly low. This study investigates the factors influencing smallholder participation in banana contract farming in Kenya. Employing a heteroskedastic probit model with robust standard errors to assess the drivers of participation in smallholder banana contract farming in Kenya, we identify key drivers such as household head education, credit access, cooperative membership, irrigation, and banana farm size. Based on these findings, we recommend policy interventions focusing on: Enhanced farmer extension services and technical assistance, facilitated credit access, cooperative development, investment in irrigation, and incentives for contract farming companies. By addressing these critical factors, policymakers can encourage wider smallholder participation in banana contract farming, unlocking its potential to improve livelihoods and contribute to sustainable agricultural development in Kenya. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many developing countries, organic agriculture is increasingly recognized as a key strategy for promoting rural economic development and improving farmer welfare. It is primarily smallholders who form the foundation of organic production in these areas. However, these farmers face significant challenges in adopting organic farming methods. The aim of this paper is to investigate solutions to the challenges encountered by smallholders. This research utilizes an integrated approach and includes a case study of the organic sorghum sector in Zunyi, China. The findings indicate that (1) a robust partnership has been established between enterprises, government, and farmers in the organic sorghum industry in Zunyi. Enterprises purchase the sorghum, cover organic certification costs, and partially fund material inputs, while local government facilitates organization, coordination, and technical support, with farmers responsible for production. (2) This collaboration has catalyzed high-quality development in the industry, benefiting all stakeholders. (3) Through this collaborative model, common challenges faced by smallholders, such as obstacles in obtaining certification, income fluctuations, and unfair market conditions, have been mitigated. Consequently, smallholders secure stable and reliable income as they benefit from favorable contract prices for organic sorghum and the assumption by enterprises of most material input costs. This study offers valuable empirical evidence that can guide the expansion of organic agriculture in similar regions and countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Monitoring smallholder agricultural productivity growth, one of the targets of the Sustainable Development Goals, rests on accurate measures of crop production and land area. Existing methods and protocols for measuring smallholder production and plot size are prone to various sources and forms of mismeasurement. Inaccuracies in production and land area measurement are likely to distort descriptive and predictive inferences. We examine the sensitivity of empirical assessments of the relationship between agricultural productivity and land area to alternative measurement protocols. We implement six production and six land area measurement protocols, and show that most of these protocols differ systematically in their accuracy. We find that an apparent inverse size–productivity relationship in our data is fully explained by measurement error in both production and plot size. Moreover, we show that some of the previously used "gold standard" measures are themselves prone to nonclassical measurement error, and hence can generate spurious inverse size–productivity findings. Our results also show that slight improvements in the precision of objective measures significantly reduce the inferential bias associated with the size–productivity relationship. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: Poor-quality extension service delivery motivated the introduction of the Extension Recovery Plan (ERP) in South Africa. The paper assesses the influence of the ERP on field-level, public extension practitioners' technical farm management knowledge and delivery of farm management information to small-holder farmers in the Thulamela municipality following their qualifications' upgrade. Methods: The study used a mixed-methods approach and employed a cross-sectional survey design. Due to logistical challenges, 80 out of 135 targeted farmers were available, and thus purposely selected for this assessment. Descriptive and inferential analytical methods were used. Findings: The findings showed that extension practitioners' technical farm management knowledge had improved; furthermore, there was a positive relationship between extension practitioners' qualifications' upgrade and the delivery of improved technical farm management information as attested to by respondents. Conclusions: The findings indicate that the ERP has a positive influence on extension practitioners' technical farm management knowledge as well as the delivery of improved management knowledge to producers in Thulamela Municipality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The involvement of small-scale farmers in markets is crucial to alleviate poverty in low- and middle-income countries. In this study, we examine the determinants and welfare implications of export participation for smallholders in Kyrgyzstan, utilising household-level panel data for the period of 2010-2013 and employing fixed-effects panel estimations. Our research reveals that the decision to participate in exports is primarily influenced by the geographical location of the farmers and their receipt of overseas remittances. Furthermore, we find no significant welfare effects from exporting when assessed using three welfare indicators. Consequently, we conclude that in the absence of organised export value chains, trade liberalisation does not yield clear welfare benefits for small-scale farmers in impoverished countries. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Sorghum is the most important cereal crop in SubSaharan Africa including Ethiopia. The productivity and production of the crop are not increased as expected due to many limitations in the generation of demand-driven technologies and innovation upscaling in integrated and impact-oriented approaches to sorghum production. The study was focused on sorghum production systems and factors affecting sorghum production for sorghum producers. For this study both purposive and random sampling techniques were applied to select 123 households. OLS regression was used to analyze factors affecting sorghum productivities. In the study areas, the majority of the farmers used the local sorghum variety. Only 17.89% of sample households used improved sorghum varieties including lalo, chemeda, and gemedi varieties. The technology attributes improved sorghum varieties were better performance than the local variety. The regression model revealed that variables including sex, age, education, improved variety, soil slope and fertility, TLU, and extension services affected sorghum productivity positively and significantly at 10%, 5%, and 1% significance levels. Respective experts (BoANR, research centers, NGOs, and Universities) should be advised and support sorghum producers to enhance sorghum productivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Much smallholder farming currently exists side by side with large-scale, industrial agriculture, as an outcome of the Green Revolution unfolding in uneven and dualistic terms. In Guatemala's Pacific lowlands, state incentives fuel expansion of industrial export agriculture. Large-scale sugarcane production has come to surround rural farming communities, where small-scale farmers grow maize and sesame with little state support. Drawing on a survey of nearly 200 households, seventeen in-depth interviews, and four focus groups in five communities during 2014 and 2015 in the Department of Retalhuleu, our research explores the realities and imaginaries of smallholders as they negotiate their incorporation into the Green Revolution. In the face of minuscule agricultural plots resulting in limited production, cycles of agrarian debt, vulnerability to drought, and emigration to the United States, smallholders paradoxically work hard to replicate "modern" Green Revolution approaches in their own parcels. We argue that the proximal, uneven expansion of modern technocentric agriculture, fueled by the model of the Green Revolution, has helped cultivate "constrained spatial imaginaries" among smallholders, in which ideas and desires around improved agricultural practices remain bound to accessing hybrid seeds, chemical inputs, and technical extension, despite the way the Green Revolution has been implicated in their ongoing marginalization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In developing nations, farming is primarily subsistence, rain-dependent, not mechanized, and uninsured, making it subject to high crop losses caused by environmental and human factors. As a result, diversifying smallholder farmers' livelihood strategies helps them achieve financial stability, combat poverty, provide job opportunities, reduce rural-urban migration, and cope with environmental and socioeconomic shocks. This study was conducted to assess livelihood diversification strategies and identify the factors that affect households' decisions to diversify their livelihood strategies. It was carried out in Basona worana and Angolelana tera woreda of North Shewa in Ethiopia in 2021 using 201 randomly selected smallholder farmers. The descriptive result indicates that 33% of the households sampled diversify their livelihoods to onfarm and non-farm activities. 57% of the sample household engaged only in on-farm activities to sustain their life. The multinomial logistic regression model results showed that age, sex, formal education level, land ownership, livestock ownership, distance from the main road, access to stable food, and credit all significantly affected household livelihood diversification strategies. Raising awareness of livelihood diversification, avoiding bad traditional beliefs on some ignored jobs, creating access to credit, roads and markets, and promoting the crop-livestock mixed farming systems were the policy recommendations of this study. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Many studies over the years have examined the impact of the Anchor Borrowers' Programme on smallholder farmers. However, there seems to be a research gap on the impact of the scheme on the food security status of the target beneficiaries. Hence, the study was conducted to examine the impact of the Anchor Borrowers' Programme on the food security of smallholder maize farming households in Kwara State, Nigeria. The data used for the study was gathered from 120 smallholder maize farming households selected via a two-stage sampling procedure. The study adopted descriptive statistics to examine their socioeconomic characteristics, Propensity Score Matching (PSM) and Average Treatment effect on Treated (ATT) to estimate the homogeneous effect of the scheme on the food security of the households, and to estimate the scheme's heterogeneous impact on household food security, a multiple regression model was used. The research findings revealed that although the scheme improved the food security of the households benefitting from it, the effect varies with the heterogeneity in household characteristics. The outcome of this research informs the development of policy frameworks for improving the delivery system of the scheme and the food security of farming households in the study area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

India's economy is rooted in agriculture, and the majority of the farmers, being smallholders, are highly exposed to the adversities associated with climate change. It has been argued by several researchers that perceiving climate change is a pre-condition for the adoption of adaptation strategies to reduce vulnerabilities. In this regard, studies are limited to explore the question 'is the perceptions of changing climate primarily motivate the smallholders to take adaptation actions?' In this nexus, the present paper seeks to understand the linkages between smallholders' climate change perception and the changes in their farming practices. The study was conducted in the seven villages of Sub-Himalayan West Bengal, India, using participatory rural appraisal (PRA) tools. Key results show, (1) respondents perceived increased warming and decreased precipitation in accordance with the scientific analysis; (2) abundance of groundwater, misconceptions and lack of awareness shaped respondents' agricultural risk perception, and despite decreasing precipitation, water management appeared less risky (3) incorporation of irrigation, diversification towards high valued and high yielding crops, as well as farm mechanizations were the major changes in the farming practices; and, (4) except water management, rest of the changes were not necessarily made to adapt with climate change instead to increase crop yield and profit. It is noticed that the changes in farming practices perhaps made the farmers unconsciously adapted to climate change. Still, a prolonged continuation of some of those practices may lead to maladaptation. In this regard, we have given direction towards necessary policy formulation and future research to achieve sustainability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Field-scale prediction methods that use remote sensing are significant in many global projects; however, the existing methods have several limitations. In particular, the characteristics of smallholder systems pose a unique challenge in the development of reliable prediction methods. Therefore, in this study, a fast and reproducible new approach to wheat prediction is developed by combining predictors derived from optical (Sentinel-2) and radar (Sentinel-1) sensors using a diverse set of machine learning and deep learning methods under a small dataset domain. This study takes place in the wheat belt region of Ethiopia and evaluates forty-two predictors that represent the major vegetation index categories of green, water, chlorophyll, dry biomass, and VH polarization SAR indices. The study also applies field-collected agronomic data from 165 farm fields for training and validation. According to results, compared to other methods, a combined automated machine learning (AutoML) approach with a generalized linear model (GLM) showed higher performance. AutoML, which reduces training time, delivered ten influential parameters. For the combined approach, the mean RMSE of wheat yield was from 0.84 to 0.98 ton/ha using ten predictors from the test dataset, achieving a 99% confidence interval. It also showed a correlation coefficient as high as 0.69 between the estimated yield and measured yield, and it was less sensitive to the small datasets used for model training and validation. A deep neural network with three hidden layers using the ten influential parameters was the second model. For this model, the mean RMSE of wheat yield was between 1.31 and 1.36 ton/ha on the test dataset, achieving a 99% confidence interval. This model used 55 neurons with respective values of 0.1, 0.5, and 1 × 10−4 for the hidden dropout ratio, input dropout ratio, and l2 regularization. The approaches implemented in this study are fast and reproducible and beneficial to predict yield at scale. These approaches could be adapted to predict grain yields of other cereal crops grown under smallholder systems in similar global production systems. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This paper summarizes the information on the Lagune cattle breed and its production systems in Benin available in peer-reviewed journals, conference papers and research reports covering the period from 1970 to 2020. Lagune cattle are kept in two production systems in Benin: the improved ranching system established at the Governmental farm of Samiondji, where most of the published studies on this breed have been achieved, and the village traditional production system. This breed has a small size with short horns. Reported adult weight varied from 140 to 180 kg for male and from 100 to 140 kg for female. Lagune cows are bad dairy. The breed plays an important role in the livelihoods of the rural people and has many functions, including cultural, ecological, socio-economic, savings and income provision roles. Most of the reports emphasizes its low productivity, which might rather be more related to its poor management conditions than to its genetic potential. The Lagune breed is reported to have adaptive traits such as tolerance to drought and heat, and resistance to ticks and diseases. In 1975, the Government of Benin, having realized the risk of the disappearance of this breed, devoted the Samiondji Farm to its ex situ conservation and set up a purebred multiplication herd. Since then, there have been very few efforts to comprehensively characterize this breed and its productivity under smallholder production systems. Consequently, the opportunities for its in situ conservation, management and sustainable use by the rural communities are not sufficiently explored. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

China's agriculture is dominated by smallholder farms, which have become major sources of negative environmental impacts including eutrophication, formation of haze, soil acidification and greenhouse gas emissions. To mitigate these environmental impacts, new farming models including family farming, cooperation farming and industrial farming have emerged in recent years. However, whether these new farming practices would improve the economic and environmental performance as compared to the current smallholder farming has yet to be verified on ground level. In this paper, by using pilot farming cases within the watershed of Tai Lake, we found that alternative farming models produced 7% more crop yield, while using 8% less fertilizer, leading to a 28% decrease in pollutant emission per hectare. These alternative farming models have a 17% higher fertilizer use efficiency and 50% higher profit per hectare. Compared to smallholder farming, these alternative farming practices invest 27% more resources into agricultural facilities, including advanced machinery, and have a younger, better educated labor force as a consequence of a larger farm size and more specialization. These input changes substantially increase fertilizer use efficiency and reduce agricultural pollution. Policy arrangements to support and facilitate the uptake of these farming models will further promote the green development and sustainable intensification of agricultural production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The study took place on the farm of a small producer in Kiskunfélegyháza. Production takes place under block system plastic tents. The sensitive points of local technology, the types and quantities of tomatoes produced were examined. In assessing the situation of the producer, special emphasis was placed on the examination of sales opportunities. Data were collected from the documentation of the farm and by an interview with the farmer. Based on the experience, a SWOT analysis was performed. Round, truss and cherry tomato varieties are produced at the farm. The season of their production lasts from April to the middle of December. Most of the tomato sold at the Wlosale Market at Budapest and the the local farmers' market. A short supply chain could create more livable, less polluting areas where there is a direct link between producer and consumer. The huge margin created by retailers and wholesalers can be eliminated. A much fresher product can get on the table of consumers, as the product can be purchased locally. Although selling to direct customers requires more time and effort than selling the goods in larger batches, this is offset by the higher available price. Direct contact with consumers provides immediate feedback on how customer needs change, making it easier to adapt to local demand. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Key to doing business involves lowering transaction costs which incorporates both tangible and intangible costs. Investigations traditionally apply quantitative analysis. Consequently, intangible costs perceived to influence smallholder market participation decisions have been left unobserved. The study therefore investigates how and why transaction costs influence smallholder poultry market participation using explanatory sequential mixed‐methods design for the first time. Cragg's double‐hurdle model is used for the quantitative analysis. Findings show that probability of market participation is influenced by access to veterinary services (VET), access to alternative sources of farm cash, longer distance to market, and shorter distance to tarred roads. Extent of market participation is influenced by access to informal information sources and inaccessibility of non‐farm income. Qualitative analysis identified three themes "Accessibility," "Availability," and "Adequacy" of transaction costs in influencing the decision and level of market participation. The findings indicate the need for continuous rural infrastructure development in the areas of roads and transport. Furthermore, to ease access to market information, institutionalized market information services need to be prioritized. In addition, improved access to VET for farmers needs to be strengthened. Importantly, agricultural interventions should account for employment status to enhance extent of market participation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study analyzes the commercial engagement of smallholder farmers in wheat commercialization at the farm level and the factors affecting this. A stratified three stage sampling technique was used to collect data from 195 smallholder wheat farmers. Descriptive and Tobit models were employed to analyze the collected data. The result of study identified that on average smallholder wheat farmers were relatively lacking in commercial activities as the mean commercialization index was found to be 0.21. The age category of a household head, quantity produced, distance to the nearest market, formal extension services, membership of farmers' cooperatives, climatic (early warning and preparedness) information, and perception towards lagged market prices were found to determine significantly the commercialization activities of wheat farmers. The commercialization level of wheat farmers can be increased by improving their understanding of commercial farming, strengthening the marketing system (accesses and infrastructure), increasing the number of adequate extension contacts, timely climatic information, making market relationships (forward and future contract) available, and increasing farmers involvement in farming cooperatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Brucellosis is a neglected zoonotic infection with a worldwide distribution and high levels of endemism in some regions, including the Middle East. In Iran, sheep and goats constitute a major part of the livestock population, often kept by small‐scale farmers for their own consumption and economic purposes. This investigation aimed at characterizing the Brucella spp. and biovars circulating in sheep and goats under smallholder farming and their potential spillover across farms. For this purpose, from two randomly selected pastoral districts of Alborz and Fars provinces in Iran, a total of 54 aborted foetuses (38 from sheep and 16 from goats) and 528 blood samples were collected from sheep (n = 435), goats (n = 77), farmers (n = 11) and dogs (n = 5). Then, serological, bacteriological and molecular characterization of Brucella isolates was performed using standard methods. Our results showed the high seroprevalence of brucellosis in pastoral districts of Fars and Alborz provinces reaching 16.3%, 11.7% and 12.7% by using the Rose Bengal plate test (RBPT), serum agglutination test (SAT) and indirect enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (iELISA) test, respectively. Furthermore, the results of bacterial culture, conventional biotyping and PCR analyses showed the presence of Brucella melitensis biovar 1 and 2 infections among goat, farmers and dog of the Alborz farms and B. melitensis biovars 1, 2 and 3 among sheep of the Fars farms. Among nine seropositive farmer and dog blood samples (four farmers and five dogs), only three (two farmers and one dog) were positive in both culture and PCR tests. These results stress the need to strengthen screening and control measures in small flocks of small ruminants in Iran that could be the starting point of new outbreaks at the livestock/human interface. The present study also suggests that infected dogs may further maintain the risk of exposure to Brucella pathogens in small farms and beyond. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The utmost barrier to agricultural production in Nigeria is not absence of recommended practices, but inability of service providers to transmit relevant technologies through information channels available and adaptable to the local situations of end-users. This study therefore assessed agricultural marketing information transmission channels to smallholder arable crop farmers in Imo State, Nigeria. Specifically, it identified agencies responsible for the transmission of marketing information, available channels and respondents' perceived benefits of information transmitted in the study area. Primary data were used in this analysis. A multi-stage sampling procedure was employed in the simple random sampling of 612 respondents in Imo State. Collected data were analysed using frequency counts, percentages and mean scores, while Spearman rho Correlation analysis was used to make inferences. Results showed that fellow farmers (99.5%) was prominent among other marketing information transmission agents. Extension/market visits (95.8%), newspaper (69.8%) and GSM/Telephone (90.0%) were the most available oral and print channels respectively. Respondents perceived that "when to plant crops" with total mean (̅= 3.26), fertilizer recommendation (x̅ = 2.97) and quantity of produce to sell (̅ = 3.06) among other value chain components, were the most beneficial information across the three agroecological zones of the State. It was therefore recommended that farmers should be involved at all stages of marketing information generation and transmission processes to ensure that relevant information are transmitted to target users through the available channels in the area. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Recent scholarship observes that smallholder agricultural practices in East and South East Asia continue to persist, despite modernization theories predicting otherwise. This article contributes to these discussions by considering the context of smallholder agriculture in southern Thailand, where rubber and oil palm have both long been prevalent in the livelihood profiles of rural households. Beyond demonstrating the ways in which contemporary circumstances of southern Thailand's smallholders largely cohere within the broader agricultural trends documented for the rest of the country, the discussion branches out to explore the implications of such a sustained smallholder presence beyond the farmgate. It shows specifically how protests staged in Bangkok in late 2013 and 2014, which led to the removal of the Yingluck Shinawatra administration through a coup d'état, ought to be understood partly in relation to earlier rounds of protest, in August and September 2013, when smallholders in southern Thailand blocked highways and railroad crossings to call on the administration for price supports. By assessing these stories jointly, the article shows how the sustained organization of large portions of rural life around smallholder agriculture contributes to shaping the political turns on Thailand's national stage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Evidence suggests that smallholders are fast becoming one of the largest micro-credit recipient groups in Bangladesh. However, the literature on the effects of micro-credit use among smallholders is surprisingly deficient. This article seeks to rectify this gap by highlighting the ramifications of micro-credit's foray into the subsistence agriculture sector. It analyses the ostensibly disparate processes of mounting smallholder indebtedness and the phenomenal rise of micro-finance institutions in Bangladesh in light of the country's broader context of agricultural commoditisation, input subsidy reduction and a systematic lessening of the subsidised agricultural credit system. The article uses the concept of "accumulation by dispossession/encroachment" to argue that persistent borrowing from micro-finance institutions (MFIs) exposes smallholders to the risks and volatilities of the market. Using qualitative insights from a case study of three villages, it demonstrates how the capital accumulation model of Bangladeshi MFIs marginalises smallholders and ensnares them in a perpetual cycle of debts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

South Africa is considered a food-secure nation; however, food insecurity is still a major challenge for many poor rural households that rely on cash incomes and government grants for survival. Furthermore, these grants are not always adequate to meet households' basic needs, and fail to provide them with the food required for food and nutrition security. Some of these households rely on agriculture to supplement their food needs, and an important aspect of this agricultural production is the seed system. Smallholder farmers in rural areas rely on informal seed systems, and use traditional knowledge and methods to produce, harvest, store, and sell their produce. This research combined quantitative and qualitative methods to assess the role of informal seed systems in promoting food production in rural smallholder agricultural households in South Africa. The narrative review showed reword that while smallholder farmers acquire seed from informal seed systems, they face numerous challenges that affect their production activities. These challenges include poor seed quality and assessment, poor storage and harvesting facilities, which limit proper seed production, and affect crop yield and marketing. Due to these challenges, the ability of rural smallholder farmers to access mainstream markets is limited and as a result, they are confined to local markets that offer lower prices. Moreover, South African policies do not recognize the informal seed system as one of the contributors to food security. This is a major limitation as farmers may not receive the support and assistance they require. Formal recognition and support for informal seed systems would go a long way in improving smallholder farmers' access to quality seed. This would have ripple effects on their yields and productivity. When properly implemented and given recognition by the government, informal seed systems have the potential to contribute to rural food security and livelihoods. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Poverty alleviation for smallholders must consider the increasingly varied and intertwined impacts of climate change and globalization. This calls for a resilience perspective that includes eradication of poverty and resilience enhancement under extreme events and shocks. Applying the framework of development resilience, we constructed an agent-based model based on small farming households in the Amazon Delta region in Brazil, and we used it to identify pathways out of poverty and sources for resilience among these households. The model allows us to explore the nonlinearity and heterogeneous nature of the smallholder livelihood systems, including how different household characteristics and livelihood strategies contribute to divergent livelihood outcomes. Using a unique yet simple tracking method, we were able to show the stochastic dynamics of individual household livelihoods in the face of various shocks, and how these households move in and out of different states of poverty over time (i.e., extremely poor, chronic poor, and nonpoor). By comparing traits of households that ended up in different states, we showed the need for targeted interventions for alternative livelihood strategies and key resources improvement. Different from conventional poverty alleviation programs, our findings emphasize empowering smallholders with different livelihood options. This has practical implications in terms of identifying leverage points in smallholder livelihood systems (e.g., livelihood strategy, land resources) that government and other agencies can use to intervene more effectively for households to become prosperous. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Agricultural statistics on small farms are critical for informing sustainable development policies, but often suffer from selection bias and are time consuming and costly to collect. Less burdensome and reliable methods are needed. We report on a scalable method using a respondent's knowledge about their land, high resolution imagery, and tablet devices to draw spatially explicit plot boundaries. We find the method may work best with respondents that own their plots are farmers, and for smaller plots (<1 hectare). We also find incongruence between survey questions and spatially‐derived data, indicating the importance of incorporating spatial data to verify responses about plot characteristics. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Predictions of the speed and extent of adoption of new agricultural practices and technologies are needed to inform decisions and plans in agricultural policy, research and extension. Using an existing tool for predicting the adoption of agricultural innovations in developed countries as the starting point, we identify a number of distinctive features of smallholder agriculture in developing countries that affect agricultural adoption. Additional factors that need to be considered when making predictions of adoption by smallholder populations include: They may be relatively more heterogeneous in their constraints, capabilities, resources, attitudes and priorities; they may be more influenced by particular cultural norms; they may prioritize subsistence over profits; they may be less reliant on agriculture as their primary source of income; they may have relatively high future discount rates; nonlandowner farmers may be less able to capture the benefits resulting from an innovation; and there may be lower and slower diffusion of information across the farming population, with more variable extension quantity and quality. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Rural Tea Development Societies (RTS) have been established by the Tea Small Holdings Development Authority (TSHDA) to address the critical issues faced by the tea smallholders. This study attempted to assess the present status and the capacity of the RTS and also identify the attributes that affect their capacity. The perception of Tea Inspectors (TIs), the key entities responsible for extension support for the smallholders, were collected from twelve Focus Group Discussions. The opinions of 65 TIs with over five years of work experiences (who interact with about 575 RTS in seven major tea smallholding area) were analysed by qualitatively. Results revealed, that the majority of RTS are not performing well due to internal factors such as poor leadership, lack of enthusiasm of members, lack of trustworthiness, status of the members, attitudes of members and also due to external factors such as ruralurban context, government benefits, the role of the extension agent, changes in the external environment, the effect of other organisation and politics. Contribution of the Main Officers, Management Committee and the membership is greater in RTS that are highly active than that of the poorly active RTS. The self-reliance capacity was low in the majority of the RTS and was highly dependent on TIs and the government's assistance. Inbuilt weaknesses in the organisational culture were identified, mainly with respect to attitudes. The majority of RTSs are not goal-oriented. The majority of RTS are not dynamic in organisational performances. Finally, their key extension agents feel that critical intervention is required to overcome the above weaknesses. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Smallholder irrigation farming is transformative to poor households as it improves livelihoods and alleviates poverty. However, little has been done to quantify its profitability. Therefore, the present study assessed the profitability of smallholder irrigated crop farmers in the Eastern Cape province of South Africa and ascertained its determinants. A multistratified technique was employed to select 120 smallholder irrigated crop farmers. Data was analyzed using gross margin and multiple regression models. The results showed that crop production is profitable. Farm experience, years spent in school, access to credit, distance to markets, and tractor use were found to have a bearing on the profitability of irrigated crop farmers. Based on the results, crop farming was identified to be crucial for jobs creation and poverty reduction. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The majority of the rural population in Botswana keep small stock as a source of livelihood. However, small stock farmers face many constraints which impede maximization of their production and returns. Yet there is dearth of information on the major challenges they face. This study was intended to give an overview of major production and marketing constraints faced by small stock farmers; and to identify factors influencing farmers' participation in the LIMID program in Boteti sub-district, Botswana. Multistage sampling technique was used to collect data from 150 respondents selected randomly. Descriptive statistics, factor analysis and probit regression analytical techniques were used in data analysis. Factors that significantly influenced effective participation of small stock producers in the program are positive perception of the program, distance to a LIMID office, distance to a nearby cattle post, and household income. Production constraints included predators, theft, pasture scarcity, natural disasters, water scarcity and lack of transport. Further, marketing constraints were reported to be low prices, delayed payments from the government, poor roads and lack of marketing information. The study provides a basis for policy formulation to improve the effectiveness of smallholder farmers and develop measures required to help them improve their productivity. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Introduction: The productive performance of tilapia is dependent on the temperature of the water, so that its growth and survival are negatively affected in water temperatures below 24 °C or above 32 °C. Aim: To compare the growth rate, food consumption and survival of red tilapia from four farms from Antioquia (Colombia) in two conditions: 1. Suboptimal temperature and 2. Smallholder farms. Methods: Two studies were carried out, in the first one the productive performance of commercial alevines at a constant temperature of 22.65 °C for 26 days was compared and in the second, the productive parameters of four farms of tilapia were monitored in six farms of small producers over 165 days. Results:Under constant suboptimal conditions or temperature variables in the field, some types of red tilapia from different farms have differences in their survival and specific growth rate. Conclusions: the productive behavior of the tilapia seed produced in the department of Antioquia is heterogeneous among farms of small producers, so it is necessary to evaluate in detail which origin of tilapia obtains the best results in the particular conditions of each producer. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Maize (Zea mays L.) is an important cereal crop worldwide for different purposes such as food consumption, animal feed, and the production of industrial products (Ranum et. al., 2014). Smallholder maize farmers are the main producers of maize and are central to combating food insecurity in developing countries. However, there is a lack of high quality spatial information on smallholder farmers from local planning agencies and governments. Improving food security is one of the critical targets of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) (SDG, 2019). Hence, a collection of Sentinel-1 multitemporal data was used in this study to develop a framework for mapping smallholder maize farms and estimating maize production area. The Principal Component Analysis (PCA) method was used to fuse the multi-temporal data at a pixel level to obtain three components for each polarization (vertical transmit and vertical receive (VV), vertical transmit and horizontal receive (VH), and VV/VH), which explained more than 70% of the information. Both the Support Vector Machine (SVM) and Extreme Gradient Boosting (Xgboost) algorithms were used at model-level feature fusion to classify the data. Results from this study demonstrate that two-stage image fusion is superior in mapping the distribution and estimated production areas for smallholder farms. The overall accuracy of both SVM and Xgboost algorithms was more than 90%. There was a 3% difference in production area estimation observed between the two algorithms. This framework can be used to generate spatial agricultural information in areas where agricultural survey data are limited and for areas that are affected by cloud coverage. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Depletion of soil nutrients due to continuous cultivation without adequate external fertilization is one of the challenges facing many smallholder farmers in western Kenya. This study was conducted to assess the effects of organic (water hyacinth compost), inorganic (urea) nitrogen (N) sources, and commercial Rhizobia inoculant on the yield of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) for two consecutive seasons in the short rains (2013) and long rains (2014). The experiments were laid out in a randomized complete block design and replicated four times. Triple superphosphate was applied to all treatments except those with compost to ensure that the soil had adequate phosphorus (P). Yellow and Rose coco bean varieties grown with urea and inoculated with commercial Rhizobia inoculant gave significantly higher yield of 382 kg ha−1 and 341 kg ha−1, respectively in the short rains (SR) season. In the long rains (LR) season bean yield was high in water hyacinth compost (1526 kg ha−1) and control with non-limiting P (1300 kg ha−1) treatments. Commercial Rhizobia inoculant did not significantly increase in yield in the SR and LR seasons. There was no significant influence on soil properties after two seasons of continuous cultivation of common bean and application of organic and inorganic fertilizers. These results demonstrate that water hyacinth compost improved bean yield in the LR season. However, longer field testing and economic analysis are required for it to be recommended as a substitute for inorganic N source among smallholder farmers. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In many countries of the developing world village poultry play a vital role in the rural economy, providing a source of protein and valuable income with relatively small investments. In almost all areas in which village poultry are raised Newcastle disease (ND) is identified as one of the biggest causes of poultry loss, this is often coupled with a lack of knowledge of poultry management practices. Inexpensive and effective vaccines are available that are suitable for use in rural village environments, but in many areas service providers and reliable structures for delivery remain an obstacle to uptake of vaccines. To overcome this, GALVmed has implemented a network for vaccine distribution in which individuals in the villages are trained as vaccinators. The vaccinators purchase ND vaccines from local agro-veterinary stores and sell single doses at market determined prices. Implementation of these networks was preceded by a programme of smallholder sensitisation to increase awareness of diseases and flock management practices. Here we present analysis of the impacts of this scheme on village poultry production. We compare the results of a baseline survey carried out before implementation of the networks, with the results of a survey 16–24 months following implementation. We present results in terms of the uptake of ND vaccine, flock size, consumption of poultry meat, and poultry sales from Gairo district in Tanzania, Mayurbhanj district in India and Banke district in Nepal. In all areas, there was a significant increase in the numbers of flocks that were using ND vaccines, with over 75% uptake in all areas, reaching 98% in India. In all areas flock sizes doubled, the numbers of eggs that were set for hatching and that hatched increased by 25–50% and there was an increase in the frequency with which chicken meat was consumed and chickens were sold. Additionally, farmers reported fewer ND outbreaks, but this is prone to reporting bias and so improvements in production cannot be categorically ascribed to ND vaccination. These results have shown that establishing a market driven approach for the distribution of ND vaccines and community sensitisation on poultry husbandry practices results in a high rate of uptake of the vaccines. The results also suggest a reduction in the number of ND outbreaks and improvements to the livelihoods of rural smallholders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was carried out to examine access to rural road infrastructure and its effects on smallholder farmers' agricultural productivity in Horro Guduru Wollega Zone, Western Ethiopia. A three stage random sampling technique was employed to select 500 farming households in the study area and data was collected on their socio-economic and farm specific characteristics. The collected data was analyzed using descriptive statistics and stepwise multiple regression analysis. The result of multiple regression model used revealed that distance to major market is important in predicting agricultural productivity of smallholder farmers at 5% levels of probability in Abe Dongoro, Amuru and Hababo Guduru districts. Ownership of intermediate means of transport was also found to influence agricultural productivity in Horro, Amuru and Hababo Guduru districts (p = 0.05). Further analysis of the regression model showed a significant negative correlation between distance to nearest all weather roads and distance to zonal head quarter on one hand and agricultural productivity on the other hand in Abe Dongoro, Hababo Guduru and Amuru districts. Rural kebeles of Abe Dongoro and Amuru districts which has vast agricultural potential were found to be the most inaccessible in Horro Guduru Wollega Zone. It is therefore suggested that interventions in the transport sector should include provision of rural roads as well as measures that will help improve vehicle supply in rural areas. An attempt has to be done also to increase the use of intermediate means of transport to ease agricultural inputs and outputs mobility and farm access. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Summary Numerous sources provide evidence of trends and patterns in average farm size and farmland distribution worldwide, but they often lack documentation, are in some cases out of date, and do not provide comprehensive global and comparative regional estimates. This article uses agricultural census data (provided at the country level in Web Appendix) to show that there are more than 570 million farms worldwide, most of which are small and family-operated. It shows that small farms (less than 2 ha) operate about 12% and family farms about 75% of the world’s agricultural land. It shows that average farm size decreased in most low- and lower-middle-income countries for which data are available from 1960 to 2000, whereas average farm sizes increased from 1960 to 2000 in some upper-middle-income countries and in nearly all high-income countries for which we have information. Such estimates help inform agricultural development strategies, although the estimates are limited by the data available. Continued efforts to enhance the collection and dissemination of up-to date, comprehensive, and more standardized agricultural census data, including at the farm and national level, are essential to having a more representative picture of the number of farms, small farms, and family farms as well as changes in farm size and farmland distribution worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

In this paper, we present a framework and a methodology to identify the long-term strategies of small-scale farmers dealing with uncertainties. To do so, we link the Activity System framework to the concept of perceived vulnerability and analyse the small-scale farmers' trajectories. Based on a sample of 34 small-scale coffee producers in Guatemala and through the analysis of case studies and classification methods, we identify some trends in long-term decisionmaking. These trends are mainly built on responsiveness, autonomy, vulnerability shifts and collective means of action. We finally discuss these findings in the light of previous studies carried out in different contexts. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Purpose – Contract farming (CF) is seen as a tool for creating new market opportunities hence increasing incomes for smallholder farmers. Critics, however, argue that CF is likely to pass risks to small scale farmers, thus favouring large scale farmers at the expense of smallholder farmers. The purpose of this paper is to examine the effect of CF on smallholder farmers’ income using a case study of avocado farmers in Kandara district in Kenya. Design/methodology/approach – The study uses data collected from 100 smallholder avocado farmers in Kandara district in Kenya and employs an instrumental variable model (Probit-2SLS) to control for endogeneity in participation in the contract and examine the effect of CF on household, farm and avocado income. Findings – The results indicate that participation in CF is not sufficient to improve household, farm and avocado income. Question remains regarding efficient implementation of CF arrangements to promote spill over effects on other household enterprises. Research limitations/implications – The research was carried out using farmers in Kandara district in Kenya as a case study, findings might therefore not reflect the status of CF in all countries. Originality/value – The paper contributes to the growing debate on the effect of value chain upgrading strategies such as contracting on smallholder farmers’ welfare. The form of contracting studied in this paper differs from the standard contracts in that the key stakeholders (producers) are loosely enjoined in the contract through officials of their groups. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

There has been increasing interest in fuel ethanol production due to environmental, economic, and social benefits. In Nigeria, all 20 new ethanol projects that emerged following the implementation of the Nigerian biofuel policy are large-scale integrated farms and refineries except the “cassakero” project, which is small-scale. The benefits of ethanol are limited because of the dominance of the sector by large-scale entrepreneurs. The national cassekero project is comprised of 10,000 units of mini ethanol refineries for the production of 8 million liters of ethanol daily which meet 33% of Nigeria’s cooking fuel demand. The project is challenged by a lack of stable electricity to run the mini-factories under rural Nigerian settings. This article therefore presents the pathway for ethanol production from cassava feedstock using locally-fabricated rudimentary equipment under rural Nigerian settings. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Summary This study evaluates the effect of certified organic production on poverty in smallholder production systems. Data was collected from cross sectional survey of local market-oriented peri-urban vegetable and rural honey producers in Kenya. Poverty was measured using the multidimensional poverty methodology and endogenous switching probit model used to assess the effect of certified organic production on multidimensional poverty. Findings were that certified producers were less likely to be multidimensional poor compared to their counterfactual case of not participating in organic certification schemes. Additionally, noncertified producers would be less likely to be poor if they were to participate in organic certification production. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: A cross-sectional study was carried out in the Mbeya Region, Tanzania, with the aim of describing the distribution and diversity of ectoparasites on pigs, within confinement and free-range production systems of smallholder farms. A total of 128 farms were surveyed, with 96 practising confinement and 32 practising free-range production systems. The prevalence of ectoparasites on pigs within confinement and free-range production systems was 24% and 84%, respectively. Logistic regression analyses revealed that keeping pigs in a free-range system and the presence of neighbouring pigs were risk factors for ectoparasites. Within the confinement system, contact with neighbouring pigs and the time interval (in months) since last ectoparasitic treatment were additionally identified as risk factors. The prevalence of Haematopinus suis was 20% in confined pigs and 63% among free-range pigs. Free-ranging of pigs and presence of neighbouring pigs were also identified as risk factors for the presence of lice. Three species of fleas were identified; Tunga penetrans, Echidnophaga gallinacea and Ctenocephalides canis. The prevalence of fleas was 5% and 13% within confined and free-range, respectively. Two pigs (2%) were found infested with Sarcoptes scabiei var. suis. Ticks found belonged to four genera; Amblyomma spp., Rhipicephalus spp., Haemaphysalis spp., and Boophilus spp. The prevalence of hard ticks among the free-range pigs was 50%. Ectoparasites were more prevalent in the free-range system although highly prevalent within both production systems. Keeping pigs in a free-range system and contact with neighbouring pigs were main risk factors for the presence of ectoparasites. Confinement was highly effective as a preventive tool against hard ticks. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

There is currently limited knowledge about the effects of introducing genetically modified (GM) crops into smallholder farming or about how biosafety requirements are interpreted and adopted by smallholders. A case study was conducted on introduction of GM (Bt) maize to South African smallholders. The results reveal low general awareness about agricultural technology among smallholders and an incompatibility between smallholder practices and biosafety requirements. The implications are low understanding of biosafety measures and low compliance. Therefore, essential prerequisites for the safe introduction of GM crops to smallholders are increased smallholder knowledge on modern plant varieties and improved agricultural advisory services that better match the smallholder context. In addition, information about GM crops and biosafety implementation must be modified to better suit smallholders. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: This article presents the first systematic review of the causes and factors associated with morbidity and mortality, on smallholder dairy farms in Eastern and Southern Africa. It was conducted in August 2007. Primary studies on causes of morbidity and mortality on smallholder dairy farms in the region were identified, examined and descriptive information extracted. Electronic (CAB Abstracts, PubMed, ScienceDirect and Web of Science) and non-electronic databases were used to identify and retrieve the primary studies. The retrieval process included all types of study designs with no restriction on the year of publication and language. Mastitis, tick-borne diseases (TBDs), tick infestation and diarrhoea were among the most commonly documented causes of morbidity. TBDs, diarrhoea and trypanosomiasis were among the most commonly documented causes of mortality; however, a substantial number of mortalities with undiagnosed causes were also reported. Factors ranked as most negatively associated with mastitis were residual calf suckling and increased water availability on the farm while use of common udder towel was the factor most positively associated with mastitis. Zero-grazing was ranked as the factor most negatively associated with TBDs while age was most positively associated. More intervention studies are recommended in the region to better identify animal health constraints and their associated risk factors. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Abstract: Substantial initiatives are under way in the tropical world to develop and promote direct-seeding mulch-based cropping systems (DMC) in order to reduce soil erosion and improve crop nutrient and water balances. DMC have been adopted by large-scale mechanized farmers, especially in America and Australia, but seldom by resource-poor farmers in the developing world. This study was conducted in Vietnam with the aim of evaluating the feasibility of farmers’ implementing DMC in a mountainous area. The method involved simulation of rational households maximizing their income subject to food security constraints and availability of resources. It generated insight into why farmers of a small region were reluctant to adopt DMC due to the extra labor and input required to implement these techniques during the first years, which hampers their economic performance. In another region, under different biophysical and economic environmental conditions, the study showed that DMC were more likely to be adopted provided that possible constraints at the community level are overcome. The method also allowed us to discuss the types of technical improvements that would make DMC more attractive to farmers. For most farm types, labor required by mulch establishment would have to be reduced by more than 30%. This would mean spreading much less biomass than the 7tha−1 currently necessary, compromising the weed-control function of mulch. This would be technically feasible only by using herbicides but this would not be economically sound since it would increase cash requirements. The study showed that subsidies of 50 to more than 200USDha−1 were necessary to enable the conversion of all conventionally managed sloping land into DMC in the simulations. These amounts are high relatively to gross margins (250–750USDha−1) under conventional management. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

This paper reports the first benchmarking of smallholder tilapia farming practices in rural northern Zambia, measuring fish growth, feed utilization and water quality parameters, using a participatory action research approach. The effects of three different feeding regimes that are currently used in smallholder farming systems in northern Zambia on the growth of the native tilapia, Oreochromis macrochir , were tested with 15 farmers (40% female), each having three ponds (one pond per feed treatment per farmer = 45 in total), over eight months in 2016–2017. The three feed treatments included: (1) formulated feed only comprising maize and soybean; (2) goat manure only; and (3) formulated feed and manure together. Three hundred (300) O. macrochir mixed-sex fingerlings, 0.5 ± 0.1 g average weight, were stocked in each pond. Water quality (pH, dissolved oxygen, and water temperature and transparency) was measured monthly, as was fish growth in each pond by randomly sampling thirty (30) fish and taking individual weights and lengths. Results showed that the water quality parameters were broadly similar in the different feed treatments over the eight-month experiment period, except for the water transparency values that were higher in the feed only treatment when compared to the other two treatments at months four through eight. Means for survival rate, weight gain, specific growth rate, total amount of fish harvested, and yield were all higher for the feed and manure together treatment than the other two feed treatments at the end of the experiment. A linear mixed-effects regression analysis that controlled for several fixed effects and included pond as a random effect found that the feed and manure together treatment increased fish growth by 10.8 ± 3.7 g at month eight compared to the manure only treatment. The analysis also found a negative effect on fish growth (−9.4 ± 3.8 g) in ponds that used the feed only treatment. The pond effect accounted for 10.1% of the total variance in the data at month eight. Future research and development efforts in Zambia should examine more closely the factors that influence fish growth and that make up the pond effect to determine which innovations and better management practices could help smallholder farmers increase the productivity of their ponds. • Novel benchmarking information on smallholder Oreochromis macrochir farming practices in rural northern Zambia were obtained. • Three different feeding regimes used by smallholder farmers were compared using a participatory research approach. • A mixed-effects regression analysis found significant differences of these feeding treatments on fish growth. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Climate uncertainty challenges the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa. Awareness of climate-smart agricultural (CSA) practices and access to climate-smart technologies are key factors in determining the utilization of farm and land management practices that may simultaneously decrease greenhouse gas emissions, increase the adaptive capacity of farmers, and improve food security. Understanding how biophysical and socio-economic constraints affect the adoption of CSA practices and technologies plays an essential role in policy and intervention planning. Our objective was to identify these constraints among smallholder farmers in Taita Taveta County of Southeast Kenya across varying agro-ecological zones. We conducted a Climate-Smart Agriculture Rapid Appraisal that consisted of four mostly gender-disaggregated smallholder farmer workshops (102 participants), a household survey (65 participants), key-informant interviews (16 informants), and four transect walks. Our results indicate a dissonance in the perceived awareness of CSA practices and utilization of CSA technologies between state actors and farmers. State actors emphasize lack of awareness as a barrier to adoption, while farmers express knowledgeability regarding environmental change and climate-smart practices but are confined by limitations and restrictions posed by e.g. market mechanisms, land tenure issues, and lack of resources. These restrictions include e.g. uncertainty in product prices, lack of land ownership, scarcity of arable land, and simply lack of capital or willingness to invest. Farmers are further challenged by the emergence of new pests and human–wildlife conflicts. Our research findings are based on the contextual settings of Taita Taveta County, but the results indicate that adopting CSA practices and utilizing technologies, especially in sub-Saharan regions that are heavily based on subsistence agriculture with heterogenous agro-ecological zones, require localized and gender-responsive solutions in policy formation and planning of both agricultural extension services and development interventions that take into account the agency of the farmers. This study contributes to existing climate change adaptation research by increasing our understanding of how physical and socio-economic constraints can affect the adoption of new farm and land management practices, and how CSA-based intervention strategies could be restructured by local stakeholders to be more inclusive. [Display omitted] • Awareness and access are key factors in determining utilization of climate-smart agricultural practices and technologies. • Objective was to identify climate-smart agriculture constraints among farmers in Taita Taveta County of South-East Kenya. • The study applied Climate-Smart Agriculture Rapid Appraisal. • Climate-smart agriculture require more localized solutions in policies, extension services and development interventions. • This study increases understanding of constraints affecting adoption of new farm and land management practices. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Studies have consistently shown that in the relatively unregulated environments of the global economic periphery contract farming has led to highly regressive socioeconomic outcomes. Contract farming is not inherently regressive for the small farm sector however. In the state of Sarawak, Malaysia, contract farming is used as part of an affirmative action programme that trains indigenous smallholders in commercial poultry production. The public sector quasi-market constructed by state purchasers and subsidiary suppliers is one that recognizes the smallholders’ limited access to collateral and technical skills and their need to supplement rather than totally replace the incomes already derived from diverse agricultural and off-farm sources. The state-administered contract scheme is part of a broader national goal to eradicate poverty, raise rural incomes and ultimately, develop indigenous entrepreneurship. In the shorter and medium term, as the paper shows, the small-scale public contract scheme, which itself operates within the protected domestic poultry sector in Sarawak, is more likely to support disadvantaged ‘bumiputra minorities’ than produce a pool of competitive entrepreneurs. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• There are more than 608 million farms in the world. • Family farms produce roughly 80% of the world's food in value terms. • Farms smaller than 2 hectares produce roughly 35% of the world's food. • The largest one percent of farms operating 70 percent of the its farmland. • Agricultural censuses must cover non-household farms. Numerous attempts have been made to estimate the share of the world's food produced by family farms and by farms of different sizes. This paper updates estimates of the number of farms worldwide, their distribution and that of farmland, using the most recent agricultural censuses available, in combination with survey data where needed. It finds there are more than 608 million farms in the world, more than 90% of which are family farms (by our definition), and they occupy around 70–80% of farmland and produce roughly 80% of the world's food in value terms. The paper also underscores the importance of not referring to family farms and small farms (i.e., those of less than two hectares) interchangeably: small farms account for 84% of all farms worldwide, as per the available census information, but operate only around 12% of all agricultural land, and produce roughly 35% of the world's food (well below the 80% produced by family farms). A comprehensive examination of changes in farmland distribution over time is also provided to showcase the increased concentration of farmland among large farms as economies grow. The largest 1% of farms in the world (those larger than 50 ha) operate more than 70% of the world's farmland. These estimates are not free from bias given existing data gaps. The paper underscores the need to ensure that agricultural censuses cover non-household farms in order to enhance our understanding of agriculture and food production worldwide. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]