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Cosmetic regulations prohibit animal testing for the purpose of safety assessment and recent registration, evaluation and authorization of chemicals guidance states that the local lymph node assay (LLNA) in mice shall only be conducted if in vitro data cannot give sufficient information for classification and labeling. However, Quantitative Risk Assessment for fragrance ingredients requires an NESIL (no expected sensitization induction level), a dose not expected to cause induction of skin sensitization in humans. In absence of human data, this is derived from the LLNA and it remains a key challenge for risk assessors to derive this value from nonanimal data. Here we present a workflow using structural information, reactivity data and KeratinoSens results to predict an LLNA result as a point of departure. Specific additional tests (metabolic activation, complementary reactivity tests) are applied in selected cases depending on the chemical domain of a molecule. Finally, in vitro and in vivo data on close analogues are used to estimate uncertainty of the prediction in the specific chemical domain. This approach was applied to three molecules which were subsequently tested in the LLNA and 22 molecules with available and sometimes discordant human and LLNA data. Four additional case studies illustrate how this approach is being applied to recently developed molecules in the absence of animal data. Estimation of uncertainty and how this can be applied to determine a final NESIL for risk assessment is discussed. We conclude that, in the data-rich domain of fragrance ingredients, sensitization risk assessment without animal testing is possible in most cases by this integrated approach. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Heme oxygenase (decycling) 1 ( HMOX1 ) is the most consistently found genetic marker induced by skin sensitizers. HMOX1 is often referred to as typical gene regulated by nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2), however, it is also regulated by other DNA-binding factors, including BTB and CNC homolog 1 (Bach1). The KeratinoSens™ assay is the first validated in vitro assay for sensitizers that measures gene induction. It is based on luciferase expression regulated by the antioxidant response element (ARE) of the aldoketoreductase 1C2 ( AKR1C2 ) gene. Luciferase upregulation is dependent on Nrf2, while HMOX1 upregulation is only partially Nrf2-dependent. Thus, sensitizer-dependent activation of HMOX1 may integrate multiple signals thereby providing additional information. We constructed reporter cell lines containing the full HMOX1 regulatory region or the HMOX1-ARE sequence and compared them with the construct containing the AKR1C2-ARE sequence. Induction of the AKR1C2-ARE depends on Nrf2, but not on the repressor Bach1. Results obtained with HMOX1-ARE and the full HMOX1 promoter indicate that, within the HMOX1 promoter, the HMOX1-ARE is sufficient to explain the induction by sensitizers and that (i) inhibiting Bach1 leads to strong basal expression, (ii) fold-induction by sensitizers above this level is reduced in the absence of Bach1 and (iii) these constructs are less dependent on Nrf2 as compared to the AKR1C2-ARE. Nevertheless, congruent dose response curves for luciferase activity were obtained with all constructs. Thus, while sensitizer-induced HMOX1 activation is dependent on Nrf2 and Bach1, all constructs give identical information for the in vitro prediction of the sensitization potential. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Three in vitro methods for the prediction of the skin sensitization hazard have been validated. However, predicting sensitizer potency is a key requirement for risk assessment. Here, we report a database of 312 chemicals tested in the KeratinoSens™ assay and for kinetic peptide binding. These data were used in multiple regression analysis against potency in the local lymph node assay (LLNA). The dataset covers the majority of chemicals from the validation of the LLNA to predict human potency and this subset was analyzed for prediction of human sensitization potency by in vitro data. Global analysis yields a regression of in vitro data to LLNA pEC3 with an R2 of 60% predicting LLNA EC3 with a mean error of 3.5-fold. The highest weight in the regression has the reaction rate with peptides, followed by Nrf2-induction and cytotoxicity in KeratinoSens™. The correlation of chemicals tested positive in vitro with human data has an R2 of 49%, which is similar to the correlation between LLNA and human data. Chemicals were then grouped into mechanistic domains based on experimentally observed peptide-adduct formation and predictions from the TIMES SS software. Predictions within these domains with a leave-one-out approach were more accurate, and for several mechanistic domains LLNA EC3 can be predicted with an error of 2- to 3-fold. However, prediction accuracy differs between domains and domain assignment cannot be made for all chemicals. Thus, this comprehensive analysis indicates that combining global and domain models to assess sensitizer potency may be a practical way forward. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Highlights: [•] The sensitizer-induced gene expression was studied in presence of Nrf2-siRNA. [•] The sensitizer-induced luciferase in KeratinoSensTM cells is dependent on Nrf2. [•] Luciferase induction parallels induction of endogenous Nrf2-dependent genes. [•] The induction of new genetic markers was reproduced in the KeratinoSensTM. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

ABSTRACT Skin sensitization is a key endpoint for cosmetic ingredients, with a forthcoming ban for animal testing in Europe. Four alternative tests have so far been submitted to ECVAM prevalidation: (i) MUSST and (ii) h-Clat assess surface markers on dendritic cell lines, (iii) the direct peptide reactivity assay (DPRA) measures reactivity with model peptides and (iv) the KeratinoSensTM assay which is based on detection of Nrf2-induced luciferase. It is anticipated that only an integrated testing strategy (ITS) based on a battery of tests might give a full replacement providing also a sensitization potency assessment, but this concept should be tested with a data-driven analysis. Here we report a database on 145 chemicals reporting the quantitative endpoints measured in a U937- test, the DPRA and KeratinoSensTM . It can serve to develop data-driven ITS approaches as we show in a parallel paper and provides a view as to the current ability to predict with in vitro tests as we are entering 2013. It may also serve as reference database when benchmarking new molecules with in vitro based read-across and find use as a reference database when evaluating new tests. The tests and combinations thereof were evaluated for predictivity, and overall a similar predictivity was found as before on three-fold smaller datasets. Analysis of the dose-response parameters of the individual tests indicates a correlation to sensitization potency. Detailed analysis of chemicals false-negative and false-positive in two tests helped to define limitations in the tests but also in the database derived from animal studies. Copyright © 2013 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: In vitro tests are needed to replace animal tests to screen for the skin sensitization potential of chemicals. Skin sensitizers are electrophilic molecules and the Nrf2-electrophile-sensing pathway comprising the repressor protein Keap1, the transcription factor Nrf2 and the antioxidant response element (ARE) is emerging as a toxicity pathway induced by skin sensitizers. Previously, we screened a large set of chemicals in the reporter cell line AREc32, which contains an eight-fold repeat of the rat GSTA2 ARE-sequence upstream of a luciferase reporter gene in the human breast cancer cell line MCF7. This approach was now further developed to bring it closer to the conditions in the human skin and to propose a fully standardized assay. To this end, a luciferase reporter gene under control of a single copy of the ARE-element of the human AKR1C2 gene was stably inserted into HaCaT keratinocytes. A standard operating procedure was developed whereby chemicals are routinely tested at 12 concentrations in triplicate for significant induction of gene activity. We report results from this novel assay on (i) a list of reference chemicals published by ECVAM, (ii) the ICCVAM list of chemicals for validation of alternative endpoints in the LLNA and (iii) on a more general list of 67 chemicals derived from the ICCVAM database. For comparison, peptide reactivity data are presented for the same chemicals. The results indicate a good predictive value of this approach for hazard identification. Its technical simplicity, the high-throughput format and the good predictivity may make this assay a candidate for rapid validation to meet the tight deadline to replace animal tests for skin sensitization by 2013 set by the European authorities. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Tests for skin sensitization are required prior to the market launch of new cosmetic ingredients and in vitro tests are needed to replace the current animal tests. Protein reactivity is the common feature of skin sensitizers and it is a crucial question whether a cellular in vitro assay can detect protein reactivity of diverse test chemicals. The signaling pathway involving the repressor protein Keap1 and the transcription factor nuclear factor-erythroid 2–related factor 2, which binds to the antioxidant response element (ARE) in the promoter of many phase II detoxification genes, is a potential cellular marker because Keap1 had been shown to be covalently modified by electrophiles which leads to activation of ARE-dependent genes. To evaluate whether this regulatory pathway can be used to develop a predictive cellular in vitro test for sensitization, 96 different chemicals of known skin sensitization potential were added to Hepa1C1C7 cells and the induction of the ARE-regulated quinone reductase (QR) activity was determined. In parallel, 102 chemicals were tested on the reporter cell line AREc32, which contains an eightfold repeat of the ARE sequence upstream of a luciferase gene. Among the strong/extreme skin sensitizers 14 out of 15 and 30 out of 34 moderate sensitizers induced the ARE-dependent luciferase activity and in many cases this response was paralleled by an induction of QR activity in Hepa1C1C7 cells. Sixty percent of the weak sensitizers also induced luciferase activity, and the overall accuracy of the assay was 83 percent. Only four of 30 tested nonsensitizers induced low levels of luciferase activity, indicating a high specificity of the assay. Thus, measurement of the induction of this signaling pathway provides an interesting in vitro test to screen for the skin sensitization potential of novel chemicals. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The currently available animal-free methods for the detection of skin sensitizing potential of chemicals seem promising. However, no single method is able to comprehensively represent the complexity of the processes involved in skin sensitization. To ensure a mechanistic basis and cover the complexity, multiple methods should be integrated into a testing strategy, in accordance with the adverse outcome pathway that describes all key events in skin sensitization. Although current majority voting testing strategies have proven effective, the performance of individual methods is not taken into account. To that end, we designed a tiered strategy based on complementary characteristics of the included methods, and compared it to a majority voting approach. This tiered testing strategy was able to correctly identify all 41 chemicals tested. In terms of total number of experiments required, the tiered testing strategy requires less experiments compared to the majority voting approach. On the other hand, this tiered strategy is more complex due the number of different alternative methods required, and predicted costs are similar for both strategies. Both the tiered and majority voting strategies provide a mechanistic basis for skin sensitization testing, but the strategy most suitable for regulatory decision-making remains to be determined. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Due to regulatory constraints and ethical considerations, the quest for alternatives to animal testing has gained a new momentum. In general, animal welfare considerations and compliance with regulations are the key drivers for this research. Mechanistically based in vitro tests addressing specific toxicological questions can yield new information, for example on reactive components, and thus in certain cases the in vitro tests are not only second choice replacements of a ‘gold standard’ animal test but can also be used to develop safer products. Here we report a case study from the in vitro investigation on the commercial fragrance chemical Azurone™. This compound was found to be a moderate skin sensitizer in the LLNA, whereas the structurally closely similar compound Calone is a non-sensitizer. A peptide reactivity assay indicated, that indeed Azurone™ yields peptide depletion, thus the in vitro assays confirmed the animal test result. LC–MS analysis of the peptide reactivity sample showed the presence of peptide adducts of unexpected molecular weight. They were consistent with the reaction of the peptide with a catechol related to Azurone™. Detailed analytics indicated that indeed this catechol is present in the original batches as an impurity, but it has escaped quality control analysis, as it is not detectable in routine GC-analysis. A new purified batch was prepared, re-tested in the in vitro assays and predicted by the tests to be a non-sensitizer. A confirmatory LLNA test indeed yielded a significantly (10-fold) higher EC3 value of the new batch, but the LLNA was still positive. A dose–response study in the EpiSkin assay indicated that this molecule still has a significant skin irritation potential, which may generate the weak positive signal in the LLNA. This case study illustrates how the mechanistically based in vitro LC–MS peptide reactivity assay can be used to contribute to the understanding of the sensitization mechanism of a commercial product and help to define a safer product specification. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Sensitization, the prerequisite event in the development of allergic contact dermatitis, is a key parameter in both hazard and risk assessments. The pathways involved have recently been formally described in the OECD adverse outcome pathway (AOP) for skin sensitization. One single non-animal test method will not be sufficient to fully address this AOP and in many cases the use of a battery of tests will be necessary. A number of methods are now fully developed and validated. In order to facilitate acceptance of these methods by both the regulatory and scientific communities, results of the single test methods (DPRA, KeratinoSens™, LuSens, h-CLAT, (m)MUSST) as well for a the simple ‘2 out of 3’ ITS for 213 substances have been compiled and qualitatively compared to both animal and human data. The dataset was also used to define different mechanistic domains by probable protein-binding mechanisms. In general, the non-animal test methods exhibited good predictivities when compared to local lymph node assay (LLNA) data and even better predictivities when compared to human data. The ‘2 out of 3’ prediction model achieved accuracies of 90% or 79% when compared to human or LLNA data, respectively and thereby even slightly exceeded that of the LLNA. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: An integral part of hazard and safety assessments is the estimation of a chemical’s potential to cause skin sensitization. Currently, only animal tests (OECD 406 and 429) are accepted in a regulatory context. Nonanimal test methods are being developed and formally validated. In order to gain more insight into the responses induced by eight exemplary surfactants, a battery of in vivo and in vitro tests were conducted using the same batch of chemicals. In general, the surfactants were negative in the GPMT, KeratinoSens and hCLAT assays and none formed covalent adducts with test peptides. In contrast, all but one was positive in the LLNA. Most were rated as being irritants by the EpiSkin assay with the additional endpoint, IL1-alpha. The weight of evidence based on this comprehensive testing indicates that, with one exception, they are non-sensitizing skin irritants, confirming that the LLNA tends to overestimate the sensitization potential of surfactants. As results obtained from LLNAs are considered as the gold standard for the development of new nonanimal alternative test methods, results such as these highlight the necessity to carefully evaluate the applicability domains of test methods in order to develop reliable nonanimal alternative testing strategies for sensitization testing. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]