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To what extent did Francis Drake’s circumnavigation of the globe influence empire formation in the late sixteenth century? In analyzing diplomatic letters of correspondence from the State Papers, this investigation reveals that Drake’s piratical activities, claims of English sovereignty, and the ensuing diplomatic controversy with the Spanish ambassador, Bernardino de Mendoza, forced the English Crown to use legal arguments rooted in the ius gentium (law of nations) and natural law to justify expansion into the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. During the dispute, both Mendoza and the English Crown variously invoked natural law and the law of nations to argue for justice and friendship. In testing these legal arguments, the Crown demonstrated that it had the capacity to counter Spanish claims for empire, which subsequently influenced imperial propagandists like Richard Hakluyt to promote English expansionism in natural law and ius gentium terms. In turn, the English Crown’s newfound confidence from the dispute manifested in its turn to reason of state and self-preservationist thinking in its international relations in the early 1580s, shortly before the outbreak of the Anglo-Spanish War (1585–1604). The dispute thus facilitated an ideology for empire rooted in natural law and the law of nations in the sixteenth century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Trashumante. Revista Americana de Historia Social is the property of Universidad de Antioquia and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In the debate over the theory and practice of the Spanish empire at the beginning of the sixteenth century, political, religious, and legal discourses differentiated conquered peoples and recent converts to Christianity from so-called "old Christians", thereby creating distinct categories of Spanish subjects. In Spain itself, cultural markers like language, dress, and diet became the foundations of fiscal and legal differences, while normative codes were promulgated and negotiated across a range of documents, e.g., legal instruments, civic and ecclesiastical records, university debates, and juridical theory. Concomitant with this process, a set of Christian catechisms was produced in Spain, both before and after the promulgation of Tridentine reforms, that were directed especially at the converted morisco populations in Granada and Valencia. These catechisms were produced in Iberian Arabic and Romance languages and included instructions about how new converts from Islam should behave, as well as what they should believe in order to participate in liturgical activities and to be recognized as full members of the Christian community. This article examines the morisco catechisms produced in Spain between 1496 and 1566, as these documents are representative of a unique period in both the history of Latin Christianity and the burgeoning Spanish empire. Through the emergence of this corpus and against the backdrop of targeted legislation and new policies aimed at Arabic-speaking moriscos, first in Granada and later in Valencia, the ideological foundations constraining the morisco experience were forged. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Political and economic discussions of inequality have boomed since the second half of the twentieth century, but concepts of equality and inequality are far older. Understanding the longer intellectual history of inequality helps deepen understandings of how the concept has changed over time, as well as across different societies, and how concepts of equality have been pre-figured to accommodate concepts of inequality. Concepts of equality have been informed by culturally relative theories of justice and beliefs about institutions that can help rationalise situations of inequality. This article examines how Scholastic examinations of equality in Europe during the Middle Ages came to focus both on the importance of property and proportionality, the need to differentiate between people of different status, and how this was developed by the so-called Second Scholastics during the emergence of the Spanish Empire in the sixteenth century and helped lay the foundations for the concepts of inequality that came to structure global imperialism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Methaodos: Social Science Journal / Methaodos: Revista de Ciencias Sociales is the property of Departamento de Ciencias de la Comunicacion y Sociologia, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

In recent years, scholars have paid increasing attention to the material, spiritual, and collecting histories of both pre-invasion and colonial New Spanish (Mexican) featherworks. Rapidly and globally disseminated through religious and family networks, these objects traveled from Mexico to Spain, and other locations, before the end of the sixteenth century. This article explores the little-known history of a devotional featherwork Ecce Homo sent from Portugal to southeastern Africa in 1569. Originally a gift to Sebastian I of Portugal sent from the Spanish-colonized Americas, the Ecce Homo later entered the collection of Catherine of Austria, Sebastian's grandmother. Catherine presented it to the Jesuits accompanying the Portuguese evangelizing and gold-seeking mission to Mutapa, a vast kingdom that encompassed parts of present-day Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Its intended recipient was the Mutapa emperor. However, this was not a gift meant to grease the wheels of diplomacy, nor was it designated as a tool for conversion: it was, instead, meant for the Mutapa emperor "se se convertese"—if he is converted. That is, it was conceived as a gift from one Catholic monarch to another, for use in personal devotion. The perceived spiritual efficacy of these feather images —themselves recently assimilated to Catholic Iberia from polytheistic Mesomerica—thus extended well beyond the transatlantic Iberian realms. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article examines colonial documents to shed light on the presence of non-white carpenters in the carpentry trade during the first two centuries of Spanish colonial rule in Peru. It first offers a general definition of carpentry work during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries and then explores the specific environments in which Indigenous, black, and mixed-race carpenters carried out their activities. Through this analysis, it becomes evident that the agency of non-white individuals and groups in the carpentry trade was shaped by the diverse labor systems that predominated in colonial society. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Narratives embedded in studies of modern Spanish colonialism have conspired against a deep understanding of colonialism as a global and current issue and have influenced or limited the directions for research. By focusing on particular narratives that separate and disconnect the realities of the colonies from those of the Iberian Peninsula, this article discusses the conceptual divide between the study of colonial and early modern realms, and the tenuous connections between the archaeology of Spanish colonialism developed in America and in the Iberian Peninsula. This paper attempts to counter those insular narratives by offering a view on how even remote settlements in Ibero-America show connections that tell stories of sixteenth-century Spain and pose questions that often cannot be answered due to the lack of shared perspectives between the study of modern Spanish colonialism in America and the Iberian Peninsula. To illustrate this view, a case study focused on Ciudad del Nombre de Jesús settled during the failed Spanish plan for the fortification of the Strait of Magellan at the end of the sixteenth century is provided. The interpretation of the results of archaeological and historical lines of research allows the establishment of material connections among individuals, stories and places of the Iberian Peninsula and America. The implication of this case contributes to considering the role that archaeology can play in questioning the enduring effects of modern Spanish colonialism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article presents the results of a historical-pedagogical investigation, which objective was to establish the main features of hybrid pedagogy and missionary-educational system developed in the Spanish colonies in the Americas in the 16th and 17th centuries, as well as to ascertain how they contributed to cultural hybridization and the construction of Latin American identity in tremulous conditions of meeting of two very different, even opposite ones, worlds and cultures. The authors found that despite the very complicated situation in which the first evangelizing missionaries found themselves, taking into account, among other things, their total ignorance of the local languages and cultures, they were able to devise innovative didactics using improvised means and all their ingenuity to be able to fulfill their duty: “to save the souls of sinners” by converting them to the Christian faith. Thus, they created the missionary-educational system, in which the aspects of preHispanic education with the elements of the European conventual schools joined in itself. This educational model contributed to cultural hybridization and the construction of Latin American identity from the first years of the conquest. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

During the 16th century, the term "Cemilhuitlapohualtepoztli" meant "clock" to the indigenous peoples of Mexico. They had formed this neologism out of three words from the Nahual language: "cemilhui" (the passing of a day); "tlapoaliztli" (to count); and "tepoztli" (bell or iron). This linguistic evidence, in conjunction with other documents found in Spanish and Latin American archives, show that autochthonous people came into early contact with these mechanisms and promptly assimilated quantified time. Historiography often claims that the Catholic Church imposed this kind of time among indigenous societies, however, this paper demonstrates that indigenous peoples appropriated a more precise and quantified time in the offices of the colonial administration, either by working as clockmakers or by producing "timetables" and calendars. This process allowed, on the one hand, the global synchrony between the Old and the New World, and on the other hand, the coordination of collective temporalities and local calendars. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Thélème is the property of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Objective/context: This article shows the internal dynamics of a distinct frontier region along the eastern plains of the New Kingdom of Granada during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The foundation of cities, the creation of governorships, their constant shifts and jurisdictional disputes, the exploitation of indigenous labor, security, and the imperial expansion were highly complex issues that today allow analyzing the territorialization of the Spanish Empire on a local scale in which multiple negotiations took place between the central power of the Audiencia at the Reign's capital and the rulers and settlers in the frontier. Methodology: By comparing and contrasting rarely explored sources, such as the capitulations of governorships and the reports of royal officials and Jesuit missionaries on indigenous slavery and settlement, the article shows how the plain's provinces were politically and administratively constructed over this period. Originality: the research delves into the complexities of provincial formation in a frontier area, expanding in detail the procedures for the settlement of the Llanos' governorships, a topic little studied in the literature dedicated to the imperial past in the New Kingdom of Granada. Conclusions: The dynamism and mobility that occurred in the plains piedmont, influenced by phenomena such as indigenous slavery, jurisdictional instability and fear of possible invasions by foreign powers, reveal the local construction of the Empire and the relationships between different managing levels. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The use of 3D visualization technologies offers a unique opportunity to reconstruct historical cities that no longer exist or have been substantially modified. In this paper, we use the oldest preserved map of the city of San Cristóbal de La Laguna, created in 1588 by the engineer Leonardo Torriani, as the basis for its 3D virtual recreation. This map shows the first non-fortified Spanish colonial city whose plan provided a model for the colonial cities in America. These distinct features made San Cristóbal de La Laguna a UNESCO world heritage site. In our work, we present a map-based workflow for 3D reconstruction that balances fidelity to the original map with the integration of other historical sources and the current status of the city. This leads to the development of several 3D models from those distinct sources whose integration provides the 3D reconstruction of the city in the 16th century. The results of this project can be applied to other similar maps that were created in Europe at that time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Historically, Iberian horse breeds were considered the height of perfection, but with the development of the Thoroughbred (the embodiment of enlightened modernity), they increasingly were aligned with Spanish obsolescence. However, this dichotomy is too simple and often incorrect. As this paper illustrates, the Spanish Pure Breed itself is the outcome of a major modernization effort in the sixteenth century, linked to the Spanish colonial empire’s own early modernity. Furthermore, “modernizing” attempts continue to shape the breed as breeders and breed organizations attempt to meet the demands of the sport horse market, emulating the success of the modern sport horse breeds. Thus, as this paper argues, within complex temporal interactions between older and newer forms of modernity, the resurgence of older, presumably superseded, projects presents a kind of queer subversion of the temporal narratives of progress, modernity, and modernization. This subversion is instantiated in the present moment by the traditional Iberian horse (as the product and icon of an older form of modernity). As a natureculture, this older modernity reverberates not only as a cultural investment but also as a “natural” resurgence of genetic diversity and multiplicity. This article theorizes the marginalized early modernities of Spain and Portugal in their baroque colonial multiplicities, and thereby rewrites the way European modernity has been understood. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

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Copyright of INTRECCI d'Arte is the property of Universita di Bologna, Dipartimento delle Arti visive, performative e mediali, Alma Mater Studiorum and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Esboços: Historias em Contextos Globias is the property of Esbocos: historias em contextos globais and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Ciencia y Sociedad is the property of Ciencia y Sociedad and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article analyzes the process of constitution of indigenous encomiendas in Araucanía in the second half of the 16th century; determines the autochthonous sociopolitical bases on which they were based and interprets the terminology used in the Mapuche language and its transposition into Spanish. This study shows the great importance of the local demographic resource for the Spanish colonization project and the different criteria applied for the distribution of the entrusted population. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article proposes a Digital Humanities research methodology in colonial literature, namely late fifteenth and early sixteen century Spanish colonial literature, in order to explore the possibilities of Digital Media in the literature classroom. After an introduction to the software Antconc developed by Professor Laurence Anthony and explanation of its usages, the article analyses two epistolary texts from Hernán Cortés and Christopher Columbus through a correlative linguistic and terminology approach. The conclusions show how these conquistadors manipulate language related to space in order to reach their goal of colonizing the so-called New World, pledging to "civilize" the territory and its inhabitants. Ultimately, this article draws on alternative pedagogical methodologies and tools that can contribute immensely to the literature classroom in the COVID-19 era, a time that calls for educative renovation and the development of teaching strategies for the online, not in-person instruction. The methodology and its analysis exemplify the possibilities of Digital Humanities to offer new, interesting approaches to colonial literature through spatial theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Anales del Seminario de Historia de la Filosofía is the property of Universidad Complutense de Madrid and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Basic Education College Magazine For Educational & Humanities Sciences is the property of Republic of Iraq Ministry of Higher Education & Scientific Research (MOHESR) and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Espacio, Tiempo y Forma. Serie IV, Historia Moderna is the property of Editorial UNED and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Copyright of Hipogrifo: revista de literatura y cultura del siglo de oro is the property of Hipogrifo: revista de literatura y cultura del siglo de oro and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Finer things in colonial Spanish America, such as pearl earrings, silver embroidery, and silk stockings, fascinated those who sought to enhance their wardrobes, dazzle passersby, and incite envy in others with foreign and locally sourced luxury. This article focuses on the advent of sumptuary laws in the sixteenth century and examines the peculiar targeting of African-descended women who represented a miniscule percentage of the Spanish American population at the time. I argue that while prosecution largely failed, the legal culture that developed around the concern about African-descended women and finery reveals both Crown and religious concerns about the future of the colonies, their desire for superficial order, and fears of imperial ruin in the early decades of Spanish America. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Spal: Revista de Prehistoria y Arqueologia de la Universidad de Sevilla is the property of Spal. Revista de Prehistoria y Arqueologia de la Universidad de Sevilla and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Spanish colonial rule in the Philippines was an important historical event in the 16th century, which began when explorer Ferdinand Magellan came to the islands in 1521 AD. He claimed the Philippines as a colony for the Spanish Empire. The religious power became one of the greatest constants of Spanish colonial rule at all levels that led to the conversion of the indigenous peoples of the Philippines to Christianity. The Spaniards were able to make Manila the center of the major commercial network that transported goods from Southeast Asia, Japan, Indonesia, India, and China to Europe. The research aims to shed light on the Spanish rule in the Philippines and its impact on the Philippine society. The research begins in 1521 AD with the arrival of the Spanish mission of the explorer Magellan to the Philippines which led to more of the Spanish missions to the area later on. The year 1898 AD was made the end of the search, representing the end of Spanish rule in the Philippines following the outbreak of the Spanish-American War where the United States took possession of the Philippines. The research was divided into several chapters. The first chapter includes the geographical location of the Philippines and its strategic importance. The second chapter includes the origin and the first human migrations to the Philippines. The third chapter includes the Spanish control over the Philippines. The fourth chapter includes the Spanish administration in the Philippines. Finally, the fifth chapter includes the decline of Spanish rule in the Philippines throughout the British occupation and the increase of the national awareness among the population of the Philippines until the Spanish- American war which led to the end of Spanish rule in the Philippines. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Among the influential factors in the Spanish conquest of the Aztec empire in the sixteenth century, intelligence played a significant role. Information from field and diplomatic sources proved to have a decisive role in planning combat tactical moves as well as in the diplomatic and political contacts accompanying the military campaign. Both sides realized the importance of intelligence and used it as part of their military and diplomatic policies. This paper explores the types of intelligence sources and information-gathering systems available to the two sides in the fateful events of 1519-1521, and analyses intelligence's impact on the outcome of this momentous milestone in the New World's history. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article explores two figures: the flâneur (Walter Benjamin) and the "mestizo" (Bolívar Echeverría). Under the word "mestizo" I gather a group of stylistic and rhetorical operations that Echeverría uses to describe mestizaje as a historical phenomenon occurred in the urban societies of Spanish Colonies during the 16th and 17th centuries. I start with a historical approach to Echeverría's readings of Benjamin from the beginning of the 1990s. Then I show some possible connections between both figures, from the allegorical strategy to the relationship between baroque and modern society. Finally, I conceive them as paradigms (Agamben 2010a) of baroque sujetity; that is, principles of intelligibility of social forms that resist the contradictions of Western modern capitalism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Then, Chapters 3-6 focus on the way literary shipwrecks (represented by Góngora, Cabeza de Vaca, and Antonio Enríquez Gómez) have shaped our conception of the quest. Shipwreck in the Early Modern Hispanic World, by Carrie L. Ruiz & Elena Rodríguez-Guridi (eds.) Ruiz and Rodríguez-Guridi have developed an interesting task, giving the collection a narrative thread that permeates all the chapters, linking Zayas's and Cabeza de Vaca's power relations, and Enríquez Gómez and the San Felipe Japanese journeys. [Extracted from the article]

This article explores how informal indigenous slave communication networks developed and were maintained in sixteenth-century Castile, as men and women served as witnesses or sources of information for those indigenous slaves initiating lawsuits to gain their freedom. Based on dozens of lawsuits in the section Justicia of the Archive of the Indies (Seville, Spain), I argue that the distinct oral communication channels formed by indigenous men and women living in different cities and towns of Castile constituted an important element of litigation suits, before, during and after a sentence was reached or the lawsuit ended. In the heart of the Spanish empire -Castile- slaves and freedmen and women inside and outside of the legal "courtroom" engaged with legal discourse about what it meant to be identified or to identify oneself as an indio (person of the Spanish Indies). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article discusses the history of the Spanish institution Cuzco in the New World in the 16th century. Topics discussed include the conquest and pacification of the new American territories by the Castilian Crown; actions, diplomacy and implementation of political-administrative structures in the period; and how it helped maintain control over a large population and a broader scope territory.

Founded in 1565, Cebu City was the Spanish first colonial entrepôt in Southeast Asia. Nevertheless, since 1571, after an arduous situation in this region, Manila was chosen as the central city for the whole islands by the Philippines„ Governor and the Spanish Crown. Within a short time, both cities subsequently thrived and quickly became part of the most important commercial places in the inner Southeast Asian trading system. Especially, since Cebu was maintained as a "crucial port" and Manila as a "Souls and Heart of Islands" by the Spanish in the East, their positions in Southeast Asia colonial cities„ system are undoubted. In fact, through these strategic trading and political stations, the Spanish founded their ideal cities following Western urban models which carried out various functions such as a political place, a trading point, and a cultural center. This study, which is based on the case study of Manila, seeks to highlight several aspects such as how the Spanish attempted to build their own model of a colonial city in the Philippines and why the Spaniards, though had safely arrived in Cebu and built the first community there, still attempted to create Manila as the most important colonial capital of Spain in Southeast Asia since the second half of the sixteenth century. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Hundreds of Castilian free blackmen and women obtained royal travel licenses to cross the Atlantic in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries as black Old Christians. They settled across the Spanish Indies and developed trades as artisans, traders, sailors, healers, and small business owners, often becoming prominent and wealthy vecinos (residents). Exploring these often obscure and long-invisible biographies of individuals, the article revisits key historiographical debates about race, purity of blood, and vassalage in the early Spanish empire. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article discusses the relationship between the Catholic Church and finance in the colonial region of New Spain in modern-day Latin America, between 1586 and 1598. The author comments on the economic conditions of the Spanish colonies in the Americas during this period, with a focus on the empire's tax policy. The Bula de la Santa Cruzada, a papal bull that granted indulgences for those who took part in the Crusades, is also examined.

The article analyzes the references to England in the works of Cervantes, specifically in Don Quixote. It highlights that mentions of England are scarce and limited to literary aspects, such as the use of England as the setting for the exploits of King Arthur. It argues that this is due to the author's personal experience and literary interests, rather than the political importance of England at that time. However, it is mentioned that Cervantes addresses the hostile relations between Spain and England in other works, such as the poems about the Armada against England and the novel La española inglesa. It is emphasized that these writings provide valuable information about the confrontation between both countries. Additionally, the participation of other writers, such as Góngora and Lope de Vega, in the exaltation of England's enterprise through poetry is mentioned. The text talks about the lack of naval warfare experience of the Duke of Medina Sidonia and the Duke of Parma during the enterprise against England. Despite his lack of experience, the Duke of Medina Sidonia showed courage and lived up to the mission, while the Duke of Parma failed to fulfill his task. The main failure that led to the invasion's failure was the lack of coordination between both generals. Additionally, the English had a superior fleet in terms of ships and weaponry. The text discusses the defeat of the Spanish Armada in the war against England. It is mentioned that the English avoided close combat and preferred long-range attacks, while the Spanish were superior in boarding tactics. The role of King Philip II as the guarantor of victory is highlighted, comparing him to King David and emphasizing his Christian character. It is also mentioned that both the Spanish and the English were providentialists and saw God on their side before and after the battle. The causes of the defeat are mentioned, attributing it to natural factors and the designs of divine providence. The article describes the battle of the Invincible Armada between Spain and England in 1588. During the storm, three Spanish ships were lost, but the wind changed direction and allowed the Armada to move away from the English coasts. Despite technical and armament disadvantages, the Spanish were willing to fight if the wind favored them. Both the Spanish and the English attributed their result in the battle to the intervention of divine providence. The article also mentions a patriotic call from Cervantes to take up arms against England. The text talks about Cervantes' call to take up arms against England after the defeat of the Invincible Armada in 1588. Cervantes argues that the defeat was not decisive and that Spain has the ability to recover and seek revenge. Although some historians consider the defeat as the beginning of the decline of the Spanish Empire, Cervantes does not share this opinion and believes that Spain still has the strength and resources to continue the war. Additionally, he points out that during the Anglo-Spanish War, Spain maintained its naval supremacy and did not lose any of its territories in America. The article discusses the justification of the war against England by Spain in the 16th century. Both Cervantes and the Jesuit Ribadeneira argued that the war was just and necessary due to the offenses and injustices committed by the English against Spain. These offenses included piracy, the looting of ports and temples, and the attack on Spanish possessions in America. The Anglo-Spanish War, in which the Invincible Armada is framed, was initiated by the English and lasted until 1604. In summary, the text talks about the looting and devastations. [Extracted from the article]

Copyright of Tiempos Modernos is the property of Tiempos Modernos and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

El propósito de este estudio, además de analizar la forma y significado de la decoración algrutescoen los conventos novohispanos del siglo XVI, es mostrar que hasta ahora en la iconografía conventual no se ha dado la debida importancia a este tipo de decoración para determinar su origen prehispánico o europeo. Los investigadores que han querido interpretar el simbolismo de esta decoración no han ahondado lo suficiente tanto en el estudio de los elementos europeos como en las aportaciones de los pintores indígenas. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Diego Muñoz Camargo'sDescripción de la ciudad y provincia de Tlaxcala(1585) is a well-known reference on the history of Tlaxcala that scholars have studied to better understand Tlaxcalan participation in the conquest of Tenochtitlan, its relationship with the Spanish Crown, and the author's selective approach to local history. Often, these approaches present the historian as acculturated or Hispanized because of his celebration of the Spanish or criticism of local religious practices. This article complicates such approaches in order to show the complex ways that the author approached issues of cultural difference. Examining Muñoz Camargo's recourse to colonial discourses of morality, I argue that the author molds and tailors these discourses to fit local Tlaxcalan circumstances. In doing so, I show how he humanizes Tlaxcala's ruling elite while exemplifying the inherent ambivalence of moral authority in Colonial New Spain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This article argues for the importance of an ethnological hermeneutics in the study of the early colonial period in the Caribbean. It does so by applying this methodology to a founding document concerning early colonial encounters on the island of San Juan or present-day Puerto Rico. The 1532 probanza of Juan González is privileged as a text through which crucial information concerning the Spanish colonization of San Juan and its original inhabitants could be obtained. The article thus contextualizes the probanza as part of a genre of colonial writing within the amply known relaciones de méritos y servicios. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of this work is to analyze the social and sentimental situation of the first Spanish settlers in the New Kingdom of Granada in the second half of the sixteenth century and their attempts to maintain affective contact and bring their loved ones, all this through the compilation of private letters of emigrants to the Indies gathered by Enrique Otte. Through the epistolary exchange, all the preparations that involved crossing the Atlantic Ocean, from the license process to the expenses, provisions and baggage, were observed. Several obstacles had to be overcome during this long journey, in addition to the process of transferring the traveler from port of arrival in Cartagena to the final site of reunion with the loved one. These are clear evidence of the sacrifices that these first adventurers had to face, which helped to forge the development of the American territory, bringing with it the social and cultural imprint of its native Spain. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Espacio, Tiempo y Forma. Serie IV, Historia Moderna is the property of Editorial UNED and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

This article studies the impact of colonial rule on Andean hierarchies of power, underlining the role of lower-level native leaders who enabled paramount lords to organize labor services, levy tribute, and govern Andean polities. Using therepartimientoof Macha (Charcas) as a case study, this article examines the impact of external colonial authorities' actions against the backdrop of rising internal tensions within Andean polities. Segmented polities such as Macha faced increasing tensions, giving rise to new mediating roles for lesser-ranking native leaders, placing the subordinate lords' fight for status at the center of debate. This article starts by exploring the first interrelations between lesser-ranking lords and colonial authorities under theencomiendasystem through the late 1560s. It then turns to the impact of Viceroy don Francisco de Toledo's reforms in the early 1570s, which simplified and standardized native hierarchies of power within eachrepartimientowhile also fragmenting local Andean elites between tribute-paying lords and those exempted of from it. Finally, the article examines the reactions of lower-level native leaders in the face of new constraints regarding tribute exemption and related obligations in the early seventeenth century, as exemplified byindio principaldon Diego Chambi. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

The present article aims to re-evaluate the gamut of ostensible alliances forged between colonial subordinates and those who subordinated them in the ethnic state of Napiniaca, Mexico, as well as identify the social spaces and contexts in which such alliances were formed and ultimately fell apart. It will do so by attempting to “unwrap” indigenous strategies and forms of resistance based on the admittedly limited texts we currently possess, in light of modern research and theory in both (ethno) history and anthropology. [ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHER]

Copyright of Histórica (02528894) is the property of Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Peru and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)