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Children often learn and apply behaviors in sibling interactions before they routinely use such behaviors in peer interactions. As part of a longitudinal study of relational aggression, 46 children were videotaped at home in semi-structured free play situations with siblings and with friends at age 4 and again at age 8. Observations revealed that sibling dyads exhibited a higher rate of relationally aggressive behaviors than did friend dyads at age 4, but by age 8, sibling and friend dyads showed similar rates of relationally aggressive behavior. Overall, this shift occurred because relational aggression between siblings decreased whereas relational aggression between friends increased. However, this pattern varied to some degree with the sex of the target child and whether the sibling was older or younger than the target. These results suggest significant implications for the development and transmission of children's social behaviors across contexts, highlighting the importance of intervening early in childhood and in the sibling context.

As part of a longitudinal study examining sibling and friend relationships in early and middle childhood, relational aggression by 4-year-olds and their interaction partners in semi-structured free play sessions with siblings and friends was examined during sibling sessions involving both same-gender and mixed-gender sibling pairs. Identifiable acts of relational aggression occurred during many of the interactions observed, but there was also a wide range in the amount of relational aggression produced. Both boys and girls used relational aggression with their siblings much more than they did with their friends. Although boys' and girls' relationally aggressive behaviors occurred at similar rates, the form and function of their relational aggression varied depending on the age and gender of their sibling.

Imitation is argued to have an important affiliative function in social relationships. However, children's tendency to imitate different play partners during naturalistic play and associations with social understanding have been overlooked. We investigated the frequency and context of imitation in a longitudinal study of 65 focal children (T1: M age = 56.4 months, SD = 5.71) during play with their older or younger sibling and a friend in two separate play sessions. Children were observed again approximately 3 years later (T2: n = 46, M age = 94.6 months; SD = 6.6). We coded focal children's verbal and nonverbal imitation of their play partner, their partner's response to being imitated, the context in which imitation occurred (e.g., pretense), and the focal child's social understanding (i.e., mental state references). Verbal imitation occurred more often than nonverbal imitation and was used most often during the contexts of play negotiations and pretense. Although focal children's imitation of both their siblings and friends increased significantly over time, children imitated friends more than siblings at T1. All play partners responded positively (i.e., smiling, laughing) most often to being imitated. Associations between focal child imitation and mental state talk with friends at T2 approached significance. Our findings provide a deeper understanding of the nature of imitation during children's play interactions and support assertions that imitation is a process whereby children build affiliation, mutuality, and shared meanings in their relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present longitudinal study investigated children's shared meanings strategies used to initiate, sustain, and end connectedness during play with siblings and friends from early to middle childhood. Participants included 65 4‐year‐old focal children at time 1 (T1) and 46 7‐year‐old focal children at time 2 (T2) videotaped at home in separate semi‐structured free play sessions with an older or younger sibling and a same‐aged friend at both time points. Data were coded for (a) shared meanings strategies (e.g., introductions to play, description of actions) and (b) connectedness in communication (i.e., initiating, sustaining, and ending conversation). The two sets of codes were combined to create a new blended code (e.g., introduction‐initiate). Children used several strategies consistently to initiate, sustain, and end connectedness across play sessions, but in other cases employed strategies differentially. There were a few notable relationship differences; children engaged in more prosocial behavior and employed a play voice when initiating connectedness with their friend than sibling and more clarifications when sustaining connectedness with their sibling. The findings provide nuanced and novel insights into children's shared meanings strategies during play and connectedness in child‐child relationships across time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The purpose of the present study was to investigate children's connected communication during play with a sibling and friend from early to middle childhood. Participants included 65 4-year-old focal children at time 1 (T1) and 46 7-year-old focal children at time 2 (T2) who were videotaped at home in separate semi-structured free play sessions with an older or younger sibling and a same-aged friend at both time points. Data were coded for connectedness in communication (e.g., smooth and flowing or disjointed and fragmented) across relationship contexts and time. Research Findings: Focal children made more failed attempts at establishing connectedness and engaged in more self-talk with their siblings than with their friends, whereas they maintained connectedness more often with their friends. In terms of the partners' balance of participation, at T1 focal children ended connected interactions more often than their siblings, and the siblings engaged in more self-talk and unclear statements. In contrast, the balance of participation did not differ between friends at T1 and T2, nor did siblings differ at T2, suggesting friend partners made equal contributions to the play interactions, whereas developmental differences were apparent for siblings. Practice or Policy: The findings contribute to our understanding of developmental and relationship differences of children's connected communication during play from early to middle childhood. Parents and educators need to be aware that opportunities for connection and disconnection during sibling play are typical and provide experiences for children to practice communication skills. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Play materials designed to enhance children's pretense were investigated; namely, how the specific characteristics of the play sets (thematically open-ended village set vs thematically closed-ended train set) influenced children's play communication regarding their co-construction of shared meanings. Participants included 44 7-year-old focal children playing with both play sets with an older or younger sibling and a same-age friend. Play set differentially impacted the type of shared meanings children co-constructed; specifically, the village set promoted more simple strategies (e.g. descriptions) and clarifications (e.g. questions), and the train set facilitated more prosocial behavior (e.g. helping), regardless of play partner. Friends were more likely to initiate play ideas and engage in disruptive behavior (e.g. control, aggression) with the train versus the village. The pattern of findings indicated that children's play communications may be associated with the specific type of props and that all materials designed for pretense do not enhance it in the same way. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study examined use of power resources and power effectiveness during the process and outcome of focal children's disputes with their sibling and friend across early and middle childhood. Participants included 35/46 families; focal children (15 males, 20 females) were observed at the age of four (T1) and 3 years later at the age of seven (T2) at home. Sibling and friend conflict sequences were coded for power resources (coercive physical, coercive verbal, simple information, elaborated information, legitimate), immediate power effectiveness (attempt, success), and conflict outcome. Relationship effects indicated focal children employed coercive physical and legitimate power more with siblings whereas they used simple information power more with friends during the conflict process. Focal children were more effective using legitimate power with siblings than friends in the conflict process whereas information power was used more when focal children won conflicts with friends. Regarding developmental effects, focal children employed more coercive physical power at T1 than T2 and elaborated information power at T2 than T1. In contrast, focal children were more effective using information power and coercion when winning conflicts with friends at T2 than T1. Results highlight variability in children's use of power based on relationship partner and development. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Humour is a central feature of social interactions in childhood that has received little attention. In a sample of 86 7‐year‐old children (M age = 7.82 years, SD = 0.80), we investigated patterns and individual differences in spontaneous humour observed during free play with their older (M age = 9.55 years, SD = 0.88) or their younger sibling (M age = 5.87 years, SD = 0.96). We coded children's instances, categories, and responses to humour. We investigated the nature of children's humour on the dyadic and individual level. Humour was common, and siblings' production of humour was highly interdependent between play partners. Dyadic humour differed according to structural features of the sibling relationship (age, gender composition), and 7‐year‐old focal children's humour varied according to gender. This study contributes to knowledge regarding the dyadic nature of children's humour and individual patterns of humour beyond the preschool years. Statement of contributionWhat is already known on this subject?Humour is an integral part of children's close and intimate interactions.Children produce humour from an early age and increasingly produce more complex humour as they develop.Few studies examine children's humour with siblings and beyond the fourth year of life.What does this study add?Children's humour during free play with siblings was common and highly dyadic.Sibling dyads' humour differed according to age and gender composition.Seven‐year‐old boys produced more humour than girls. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study examined features of sibling and friend dyads' connectedness (e.g., length and emotional tone of connected sequences) and the quality of the dyads' interactions during play from early to middle childhood. Forty-four families with a 4-year-old focal child were observed at Time 1 (T1) and again at Time 2 (T2) at age 7 in two separate play sessions (i.e., sibling and friend). Play sessions were coded for interaction quality (i.e., conflict, cooperation). Based on previous research, features of the sequences (i.e., emotional tone, length of sequence) were compared across relationship and time. Research Findings: Findings revealed similarities in the dyads' interaction quality, with both siblings and friends increasing in cooperation over time. Similarly, the emotional tone of siblings' and friends' connected sequences was more likely to be positive than negative; however, siblings' sequences were short rather than long, whereas friends' sequences were more likely to be long than short. Practice or Policy: These findings provide new insights into children's connectedness in child-child relationships and changes in connectedness across development from early to middle childhood. The study highlights the importance of observing the dyad when using a relationships theory framework to examine children's interactions. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Power processes in siblings' and friends' conflict interactions are of significance for children's development and socialization. This study conducted a comparative analysis of power behaviours (resources and effectiveness) utilized by dyadic partners in sibling and friend conflict during early childhood when focal children were aged 4. The sample consisted of 65 families and included 347 sibling conflict sequences and 326 friend conflict sequences. Data based upon naturalistic observations were coded for resources of power and power effectiveness. Patterns of findings were identified in the conflict process. Specifically, dyads used simple demands most often, followed by coercive, then elaborated information, and finally questioning power. Despite similarities, sibling dyads used coercive power and negative reward power more often than friends. Regarding power effectiveness, sibling and friend dyads were most effective using coercive power, followed by elaborated, and then questioning power. These findings provide strong support for the importance of taking the dyadic relationship context into account when studying the power process in children's interactions. Highlights: How does siblings' and friends' dyadic use of power resources and effectiveness differ in the process and outcome of conflict in early childhood? Data were based upon naturalistic observations of conflict, and findings provide strong support for dyadic analyses when studying the power process in siblings and friends interactions. The findings provide new and novel insights regarding children's agency in conflict, thus highlighting the contributions of children to their own socialization process. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study investigated children's internal state language during play with their sibling and friend across early and middle childhood. Specifically, the category type of internal state language (e.g., cognitions and goals), referent (e.g., own and other), and associations with children's birth order were examined. A total of 65 (T1: Time 1) and 46 (T2: Time 2) children were observed at age 4 and 3 years later when children were aged 7 with their sibling and with their friend in two separate play sessions at home. Videos were transcribed and coded for the frequency and category of internal state language. Children referenced cognitions more often with their sibling than friend at T2. Children's references to shared internal states (e.g., 'we') were more frequent at T2 than T1 across relationship contexts. Time effects were found when the category and referent of internal state language were cross-tabulated (e.g., references to shared goals plus one's own cognitions were more characteristic at T2 than T1). Birth-order effects were evident at T1 with younger children referencing goals and cognitions with their sibling more often than older children. Results provide new insight into children's use of internal state language across relationship contexts and developmental periods. Highlight The purpose of the present study was to compare children's category type and referent of internal state language across sibling and friend relationships and from early to middle childhood. Results demonstrated that children showed higher rates of cognitive terms at middle childhood, particularly with their sibling, and referred to shared internal states more at middle childhood than early childhood. Findings highlight the importance of considering social context and a longitudinal design when observing children's internal state language during play. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The construction of shared meanings strategies (e.g., introductions, extensions) and use of internal state language (e.g., references to mental states) during play were examined across two relationship contexts (siblings and friends) in 65 focal kindergarten-aged children ( M age = 56.4 months; SD = 5.71 months). Strategies to construct shared meanings were associated with play session; specifically focal children employed introductions more often with their siblings whereas positive/neutral responses and prosocial strategies were used more frequently with their friends. Findings regarding birth order position indicated that older focal children were more likely to engage in non-maintenance (e.g., negative) behaviors and explanations with their siblings whereas younger focal children employed extensions of play ideas more often with their siblings than friends. Associations between shared meaning strategies and internal state language were positively correlated across both relationship contexts, with more significant associations found in the sibling play session. Findings highlight the high level of sophisticated play interaction among children during play; these interactions were rich and varied and are discussed in light of recent research and theory. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This 3-year longitudinal study examined children's engagement and refusals to be prosocial between siblings and friends from early to middle childhood. At each of two time points, 44 children (M age = 4.56 years at Time 1 [T1]) were video-recorded in one play session with a sibling and one with a friend. Children's helping or refusals to help and sharing or refusals to share and their strategies to refuse prosociality were coded. Findings revealed that prosocial refusals were as frequent as prosocial actions between siblings and friends. Children were more likely to refuse to be prosocial with their sibling especially for sharing and through verbal refusals. Children used verbal refusals more at T1, whereas they used passive refusal more at T2. Verbal and nonverbal refusals were used more to refuse sharing, whereas passive refusal was used more to refuse helping. This study highlighted the importance of prosocial refusals in the development of prosociality in the context of close relationships. [End Page 421] [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The present study examined children's co‐construction of shared meanings and internal state language during play with their sibling and friend from early to middle childhood. Sixty‐five 4‐year‐old children (T1) and 46 7‐year‐old children (T2) were observed in the home during two free play sessions with a sibling and with a friend at both time points. Shared meaning strategies during social play (e.g., extensions and positive responses) and during pretend enactment were coded. Shared meaning strategies were associated with relationship context; children used more positive shared meaning strategies with friends compared to siblings and more introductions with siblings than friends. Moreover, developmental differences were evident; specifically, children employed more simple strategies, semantic tying (e.g., building on to one's ideas) and prosocial strategies at T2 than T1. Differences were also evident during pretend enactment where children used simple strategies more at T2 than T1 and clarifications more at T1 than T2. Findings highlight children's sophisticated and flexible communication strategies used in the process of co‐constructing a shared understanding during play. Highlights: The present study investigated children's shared meaning strategies used during play with their sibling and friend from early to middle childhood.Children were observed in separate play sessions and both relationship and developmental differences were found.The patterns of findings highlight important similarities and differences in children's co‐;construction of shared meanings with siblings and friends over time. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

We investigated change and continuity in children's humor production from early to middle childhood with siblings and friends. Sixty-five children (M age = 56.4 months, SD = 5.71) were observed as they played with their older or younger sibling and with a friend in two separate play sessions. Children were observed again approximately three years later (n = 46, M age = 94.6 months; SD = 6.6). Spontaneous humor production was coded in the play sessions. Focal children's humor production did not differ as a function of relationship or time. Children's tendency to produce humor with their sibling at 4 years of age was associated with humor production with a friend, both concurrently and three years later. Our findings draw attention to childhood sibling relationships and friendships as rich contexts for humor and continuities across relationships and time. • We investigated children's humor during play with a sibling and a friend in a longitudinal study. • Humor with a sibling at age 4 was associated with humor with a friend, both concurrently and three years later. • Children's humor was highly dyadic and, at age 7, appeared specific to each social context. • Our findings provide new knowledge regarding the nature of humor across childhood and in different child-child relationships. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]