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Crown policies and private enterprise combined to increase efficiency levels in Portuguese overseas expansion. Within this framework, this paper will emphasize three themes. Firstly, the dependence of the Portuguese empire on shipping efficiency; while the debate largely focuses on shipbuilding and seafarers, we show how crown policies and individual enterprises adapted to the evolving requirements of an empire based on sea power. Secondly, we demonstrate how informal and self-organized mechanisms at times contributed to, and sometimes blocked, state-oriented policies. Thirdly, we gauge the extent to which local inputs, such as raw materials, labour and techniques, contributed to efficiency levels within a universe that became multi-continental. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Shipbuilding was an essential element in the creation of overseas empires during the early modern period. It generated demand for raw materials, technology and manpower, and in many cases received direct support from the state. The Portuguese shipbuilding industry enjoyed various incentives from the Crown, but was always a mix between state and private enterprise. With Portugal expanding overseas, building and repairing ships in the various Portuguese possessions became an option. Initially, it was viewed critically by the metropolitan authorities, as they feared losing control. Soon, however, the logistical needs of empire meant that public and private agencies began providing shipbuilding facilities in Portugal's overseas territories. In Brazil, the abundance of high-quality wood militated in favour of the establishment of shipyards. Wood cut there or on the Atlantic coast of Africa was also transported to metropolitan Portugal. Shipbuilding specialists were sent out to Brazil to supervise the selection of suitable wood, and soon started to operate shipyards there. Little is known about shipbuilding in the Portuguese possessions in western Africa, while more can be said about the industry on the shores of the Indian Ocean. Shipyards in India, particularly in Goa and Cochin, were developed to meet the challenges and needs of formal and informal 'empire', particularly regarding ship repairs. The Ribeira de Goa replicated first the Ribeira das Naus of Lisbon, but soon individual shipyards took over specific functions. Crown control, initially tight and systematic, proved difficult to maintain. Indian woods were known for their hardness and durability and were shipped to Europe to build ships for the Indian Route. Expert labourers migrated from Portugal to overseas possessions, with specialists in metallurgy joining the shipbuilders. The scope of the operation also required the recruitment of local shipbuilders. In general, and for its financial resources, Portuguese colonial shipbuilding soon relied on a cooperation of state and private initiative, much as at home. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]