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In this position paper we present research and data demonstrating how pedagogical frameworks traditionally used in TESOL contexts can be harnessed by world language (WL) educators to scaffold language learning and advocate for emergent multilingual language learners (EMLLs). Focusing on three pedagogical frameworks--Sheltered Instruction Observation Protocol (SIOP), translanguaging, and multilingual ecology--we discuss how we have utilized these frameworks with WL teachers and teacher candidates and offer suggestions for how they might be used effectively in WL classrooms to both scaffold language acquisition and foster a greater appreciation for and pride in multilingualism.

In the geographies where various languages are spoken, individuals may have to experience learning one or more languages to fulfil their needs. When societies who live together and use various language groups make contact with people who use other language groups and cultures, they have to interact with each other. This mutual effect is then reflected on the languages and brings the term of bilingualism or multilingualism into the agenda. Multilingualism is regarded as the simple form of bilingualism. The acquisition of a second language indicates the ability to use another language. The process of dual-language/bilingualism emerges in cases where people learn/acquire another language in addition to his/her mother language. Dual language or bilingualism can be stated as an individual expressing themselves in two or more languages as effectively as in the mother tongue. The reason for choosing this topic is the increasing popularity of it; because human beings who use various languages all over the world have had to live together for numerous reasons such as wars, migrations, education, trade and etc. In 2022-2023 AY, in order to understand and shed light on students' ideas towards bilingualism, a survey was carried out at a state university in England. We would like to state that the findings obtained from evaluating the attitudes of the bilingual students related to the acquisition of English will contribute to the literature and provide a different perspective in this research.

This study examined the within- and cross-language relationships between intrinsic language learning motivation, home literacy environment (shared book reading, parental literacy involvement, and parent perceived child literacy interest), and receptive vocabulary in 185 bilingual preschoolers and 233 primary school children in Singapore. Age differences were also examined. Unlike the motivation decline commonly observed in middle childhood, the primary school children demonstrated higher levels of intrinsic motivation than the preschoolers in both English and the second language (L2). Results showed a motivation gap between English and children's L2 in primary school children but not in preschoolers. The hierarchical regression results revealed that intrinsic motivation and the three facets of home literacy environment (HLE) were differentially involved in receptive vocabulary across languages and age groups. Within-language relations showed that intrinsic motivation only predicted receptive vocabulary in English among primary school children, but not among preschoolers. Among primary school children, parent perceived child literacy interest in L2 was the only significant predictor of L2 receptive vocabulary; among preschoolers, shared book reading was the only significant predictor. Cross-language relations revealed that parental literacy involvement in English negatively predicted L2 receptive vocabulary in primary school children, and there were no L2 effects on English receptive vocabulary.

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic created a unique learning experience, characterised by school closures and a shift to online learning. Research suggests that online learning during the pandemic negatively impacted the reading development of elementary school children. However, little is known about the challenges of learning a second language (L2) remotely. Therefore, this study investigates the impact of online learning during the pandemic on language and reading development among French immersion (FI) students who learn French as an L2. Methods: A total of 137 Grade 1 and Grade 2 students from two cohorts were included in the study. The in-person cohort consisted of 72 students who attended school in person and were tested in person before the pandemic. The online cohort consisted of 65 students who received virtual instruction during the pandemic and were tested online. Measures of vocabulary, word reading accuracy and fluency, and phonological awareness were administered in English and French to both cohorts. Analyses of covariance (ANCOVAs) were carried out to assess the effects of cohort and grade on the measures, with guardian education as a covariate. Results: Students in the in-person cohort performed significantly better on French vocabulary and English word reading accuracy than students online. The cohort effect was not significant for other French and English measures. Grade 2 students significantly outperformed Grade 1 students in both English and French vocabulary and word reading. Conclusions: The current results suggest that online learning may have had a moderately negative effect on French vocabulary but no impact on French phonological awareness or word reading. FI students' English skills were also largely unaffected. Therefore, FI students made progress on their language and literacy skills through online learning during the pandemic. The findings point to the importance of enhancing L2 vocabulary input during online learning.

This cohort-sequential study explored the working memory (WM) structures that underlie growth in mathematical word problem solving (WPS) performance in elementary school emergent bilingual children whose first language (L1) is Spanish. To this end, children (N = 429) in Grades 1, 2, and 3 in southwest U.S. school districts at Wave 1 were administered a battery of cognitive (short-term memory [STM], WM, rapid naming, inhibition), domain-general nonmath (reading, vocabulary, and fluid intelligence) and domain-specific math measures (arithmetic computation, estimation, and magnitude judgment) in both Spanish (L1) and English (L2). These same measures were administered 1 and 2 years later. Four important findings emerged: (a) A three-factor structure (phonological STM, visual-spatial WM, and executive WM) captured the data across three testing waves within and across both language systems; (b) growth in phonological STM and executive WM uniquely predicted WPS growth, but these two WM structures interacted within the English language system; (c) Spanish verbal WM (phonological STM, executive WM) enhanced the magnitude of predictions of English verbal WM on English WPS; and (d) growth in language-specific phonological STM and executive WM predicted cross-sectional and within-child changes in WPS independent of growth in other domain-specific and domain-general academic areas. Taken together, the results suggest that language-specific age-related phonological STM growth and executive WM growth rates underlie Spanish and English math word problem-solving performance. The results extend the contribution of development models as a function of WM structures across two language systems as they apply to complex math performance.

Bilingual environments present an important context for word learning. One feature of bilingual environments is the existence of translation equivalents (TEs)--words in different languages that share similar meanings. Documenting TE learning over development may give us insight into the mechanisms underlying word learning in young bilingual children. Prior studies of TE learning have often been confounded by the fact that increases in overall vocabulary size with age lead to greater opportunities for learning TEs. To address this confound, we employed an item-level analysis, which controls for the age trajectory of each item independently. We used Communicative Development Inventory data from four bilingual datasets (two English-Spanish and two English-French; total N = 419) for modeling. Results indicated that knowing a word's TE increased the likelihood of knowing that word for younger children and for TEs that are more similar phonologically. These effects were consistent across datasets, but varied across lexical categories. Thus, TEs may allow bilingual children to bootstrap their early word learning in one language using their knowledge of the other language.

In this article, I share two critical incidents from the vocabulary lessons in an instructional cycle on immigration with third-grade bilingual students. In sharing these critical incidents, I seek to raise awareness of how colonial legacies of cultural and linguistic domination permeate translanguaging pedagogy. I use critical reflection, classroom discourse analysis, and positioning theory to unpack the assumptions that guided my approach to translanguaging pedagogy in these lessons. In addition, I investigate the relationship between vocabulary learning and identity development by examining how the students and myself, as their teacher, positioned ourselves and the other participants in relation to the target words and how the interactions during these lessons expanded or constrained opportunities for identity development. The findings of this study show that the language fluidity in these lessons gave students the confidence to share experiences, raise questions, and contribute their perspectives. However, the vocabulary instruction activities overlooked the complexity of the concepts taught and missed significant opportunities for enhancing students' identity development. Moreover, these missed opportunities were related to my own colonial understandings of identity. These results suggest implications for teacher professional development and vocabulary instruction from a translanguaging perspective.

The aim of this study was to examine the effect of mind and intelligence games on the development of multilingual preservice classroom teachers' Turkish language skills. In the study, an embedded mixed methods design, which is included in the scope of mixed research designs, was adopted. A single group pretest-posttest design within the scope of the pre-experimental designs was taken as the basis in the quantitative dimension of the research; while in the qualitative dimension, a design related to the effects of the program in the context of a special case study was taken as the basis. The study group of the research consisted of multilingual preservice classroom teachers (n=10). Videos, semi-structured interviews, a questionnaire, diaries, metaphor form, and the Foreign Language Learning Practices Scale (FLLPS) were used as data collection tools. According to the results obtained from the data collection tools, at the end of this game process, the participants' Turkish language skills, cognitive skills (memory, attention, perception, etc.), and affective skills (socialising, feeling happy, having fun, etc.) improved. It was also observed that this development process took place on the basis of cultural interaction. In light of the findings, it was concluded that the mind and intelligence games had positive effects on the development of the multilingual preservice teachers' language skills.

Bilingualism has been the subject of a lot of research in the last century. Bilingualism is having the competence to speak two languages. The reasons for bilingualism of individuals may differ. Some of them may have parents from different languages, some may be children of ethnic minority or immigrants. In daily life it is possible to encounter more bilinguals than monolinguals. Bilingualism is not a new phenomenon, and it takes place in the media and news in different ways under different titles related to it. In this study, the news about bilingualism in the newspapers of the USA, the UK, France, Germany, and the Netherlands is analyzed in terms of content which is named as discourse analysis. The contents are categorized under five different titles which are neurological, social-cultural, psychological, educational, national categories. It has been found that majority of news related to bilingualism belong to educational category which shows that bilingualism draws attention and is given importance in educational contexts. Another categorization in this study is implemented for speech act categories. Each headline is categorized according to the speech acts which are representatives, directives, commissives, expressives and declaratives. In this study it was found that majority of headlines belong to representative category of speech acts.

The objective of this study was to validate a bilingual Spanish-English version of the Vocabulary Size Test (VST) considering its potential use as a discriminator between learners in terms of language competence. This version was designed based on the two forms available on one of the creators' websites as well as considering practices recommended regarding the elimination of cognates and loans. A one-way ANOVA test was used to confirm the test's capacity to discriminate among learners of different linguistic competence. Additionally, Principal Axis Factoring (PAF) was conducted to revise the existence of only one underlying variable. As a result of this study, a VST version for Spanish speakers consisting of 9 vocabulary frequency levels is shared. This version is in line with validation standards put forward in previous research. It is expected that this instrument will help future studies that seek to measure Spanish speakers' competence in English as a foreign or second language without having to deal with the interference of other intervening factors.

Since the earliest studies on multilingual advantages, it has proved difficult to disentangle language development from general cognition. It remains unclear whether language interdependence is an independent variable or whether observable effects are mediated by cognitive ability. Measurable effects of one language on another typically go hand in hand with differences in cognitive ability. We hypothesise that high cognitive ability produces stronger language interdependence effects than low cognitive ability. We consider this problem in the context of heritage bilingualism in Germany comparing a linguistically mixed cohort of bilingual students (n = 557; i.e. Russian-German, n = 237; Turkish-German, n = 320) with a monolingual German control (n = 852) regarding their proficiencies in the foreign language English. We ask whether the bilingual students manifest an English development that is different from their monolingually socialised peers. We place the students in three different groups depending on their performance in a visual-spatial cognitive ability test. We fit structural equation models to test whether heritage language and German proficiency impact English proficiency differently across these groups while additionally controlling for language background and socio-economic status. Results reveal differences between the high cognitive ability groups, here interpreted as a conditioned bilingualism effect.

This 2-year exploratory study of Multilingual Learner's performance on literacy assessments is grounded in Culturally Responsive Teaching. By examining the protocols for universal screeners and progress monitoring at one midwestern elementary school, teachers and researchers learned more about language vs. literacy-related results and discovered ways to better meet the needs of learners. Data gathered through focus group discussions, classroom observations, literacy assessments, and field notes were analyzed. Findings include: (1) students read passages that lacked cultural and linguistic relevancy, (2) professionals questioned the reliability and validity of assessments for multilingual learners, (3) assessment results perpetuated an idea that students needed to be 'fixed' creating a tension between language acquisition and literacy assessment scores, and (4) room for increased awareness and consideration in the selection of literacy assessments for ML learners. Ideas are shared for nuanced improvements in literacy assessments for multilingual learners.

At the core of contemporary U.S. language education policy is the dichotomous dividing of bilingual students into English Learners (ELs) who are entitled to extra support and non-ELs who are not entitled to this support. In this article, we genealogically trace the normative assumptions that go into this framing of the issue. We begin by examining the historical development of this dichotomous grouping of bilingual students within the remedial framing of the Bilingual Education Act that, building on the verbal deprivation theory that was prominent at the time, reproduced raciolinguistic ideologies that framed the language practices of racialized bilingual students as deficient and in need of remediation. We then examine how this remedial framing provided incentives for proponents of bilingual education to advocate for limited English proficiency as broadly as possible to ensure that more students were deemed eligible for these programs. We then examine contemporary vignettes that point to the tensions that this ideological underpinning has created for contemporary U.S. language education policymakers. We end with a discussion of ways of reconceptualizing U.S. language education policy that reject the remedial orientation that has informed this dichotomous framing and is responsive to the tensions reported by these educators.

To date, little attention has been paid to the impact of immersion programs on learning interests in a second language (L2). The main purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of two types of Hakka-Chinese bilingual programs (immersion vs. non-immersion) on L2 learning interests. Four kindergarten teachers (two in each program) consented to rate a total of 114 kindergarteners aged five years at the beginning and the end of the semester. By conducting confirmatory factor analysis, paired t-tests, and ANCOVA, results showed: (1) Kindergarteners' learning interest in immersion programs could be differentiated into situational interest and individual interest, (2) The Hakka immersion and non-immersion programs both had positive effects on learning interest and (3) Both learning interests of kindergarteners in the immersion program were found to be inferior to that of kindergarteners in the non-immersion program when the initial differences in learning interests in these two programs were controlled. The results imply that the quality of a bilingual program is more important for cultivating an interest in second language learning than the percentage of time traditionally spent to differentiate between immersion and non-immersion programs (i.e. whether approximately 50% of the curriculum was used to teach a second language).

Providing equitable education for emergent bilinguals (EBs) is an educational goal in the U.S. However, literature has reported that English as a Second Language (ESL) teachers feel marginalized, a reflection of the marginalized status of EBs in the K-12 public school settings. Using a multi-method approach, this case study explored to what extent ESL teachers' marginalization challenges were exacerbated during COVID-19. We surveyed 37 primary school ESL teachers from diverse districts in central New Jersey and conducted two in-depth one-on-one interviews with four participants. Our data revealed that pre-existing challenges (e.g. isolation) worsened during the pandemic mainly due to unsupportive school leadership phenomena and the leaders' ignorance of ESL instruction. Social and emotional support is what the participants yearned for from the school leaders. To create an inclusive school environment for EBs and ESL teachers, we urge school leaders to put ESL teachers' instructional needs and well-being at the top of administrative agendas and make meaningful connections with these teachers. We also recommend school leaders to cultivate a distributed leadership culture in which ESL teachers' expertise is valued in providing equitable education for EBs.

With the large influx of Russian-speaking migrant workers and their children to South Korea, there is a growing need to explore the language and literacy practices of emerging multilingual learners. Specifically, as the Korean language is predominantly used in South Korean contexts, including school, Russian-speaking children face enormous linguistic and academic challenges and demonstrate different language practices in and out of school contexts. Drawing upon the conceptual frameworks of translingualism and agency, this three-year longitudinal case study attempts to investigate how and for what purposes an emergent multilingual youth executes his agency to engage in translingual practices within and across different contexts (in and out of school, and in an after-school program called Translingual Writing Program) and how his participation in translingual practices influences how he exercises his agency as a language learner. This study employs multiple sources of data to build a multifaceted perspective on an emerging multilingual youth's translingual practices and agency across multiple contexts over the course of three years. The findings suggest that the youth's engagement in translingual practices became more agentive and active under circumstances in which his multilingual beliefs and competence were valued, and where a relatively large number of resources were available.

Recent calls encourage teacher education programs to examine how they address equity within educational technology coursework. This study therefore conceptualizes equity specifically related to using digital tools with multilingual learners. Drawing on a technological pedagogical content knowledge (TPACK) framework informed by prior research on (language) teacher education and computer-assisted language learning, this study examines how preservice teachers described their knowledge base specifically related to using digital tools equitably with multilingual learners. Qualitative analysis of 17 preservice teachers' course discussions, assignments, and interviews revealed that preservice teachers purposefully reflected on and selected digital tools to use that would support students' language development and leverage students' interests. They also reflected on structural inequities and advocacy related to technological implementation. This study encourages teacher educators to support preservice teachers in developing technologically savvy practices that are also linguistically responsive and humanizing by centering equity in TPACK.

This study examines L2 speakers' accent attitudes in relation to their linguistic profile and current practices, recruiting 107 multilingual postgraduate students of 34 different nationalities enrolled in leading research universities in Japan. The participants completed a survey regarding their perceptions of different English varieties in English as a lingua franca (ELF) contexts. Interviews were additionally conducted to solicit in-depth perspectives on their accent attitudes and contextual accent variation. Factor analysis of the survey data generally supported the thematic trends observed during the interviews, in which three-quarters of the interviewees expressed a wish to attain native-like English accents. However, those who aspire to native-like pronunciation do not necessarily maintain negative attitudes towards others who speak with foreign accents. Rather, they appear indifferent to others' accents and varieties of World Englishes, and they do not associate their accents with nationhood or cultural identity. Thematic analysis of the interview data revealed that participants' pressing need to sound native-like stems from not only pragmatic considerations such as better intelligibility but also their context specificities, which entail frequent high-stakes ELF interaction and arrangements for professional entry in the imminent future. These observations imply that a linguistic hierarchy still lingers in the World Englishes paradigm.

Purpose: This study investigated the longitudinal, cross-linguistic developmental relationships of phonological awareness (PA), letter identification (letter ID), and morphological awareness (MA) in 71 heritage Spanish-English dual language learners (DLLs) in kindergarten and second grade. Method: Multiple linear regression was used to test if kindergarten Spanish and English PA (sound elision and sound matching) and letter ID significantly predicted later English MA (oral derived word stress judgment, oral derivational morpheme blending, written derived word decomposition, and morphologically complex word spelling) performance in second grade. Results: Cross-linguistically, the PA skill of sound matching in kindergarten was the most reliable predictor of MA in second grade for Spanish-English DLLs. Spanish PA explained the majority of variation in oral MA skills in English. English PA was only uniquely predictive of written MA skills in English. Conclusions: Both the cognitive operation of sound sequence manipulation in PA (elision or matching) and the modality of morpheme representation in MA (oral or written) appear to mediate the transfer of metalinguistic knowledge in Spanish-English DLL development in early elementary school. Results are discussed within the context of classroom practices.

This study investigates trajectories of L2 development in writing in two genres over multiple time points in a semester-long ESL writing program. Conceptually replicating previous studies on genre and development, we analyzed 270 argumentative and narrative essays written by 45 ESL students to find developmental and genre differences, using fine-grained indices that tap into multiple dimensions of complexity. We found a genre effect on most complexity features, with significant differences between the genres. We also present evidence of growth in linguistic complexity, reporting linear developmental trajectories for lexical features but not for clausal or phrasal features. In addition, we found evidence of interaction effects between genre and time for some indices that are sensitive to unique combinations of genre and development. We conclude that development in L2 writing involves the nonlinear emergence of linguistic usages over time and that the developmental pattern can be distinct for different genres.

Although the emergent bilingual status of foreign language (FL) students is often overlooked, that is not to say that students do not, on some level of consciousness, experience changes in their identity as a result of their emergent bilingualism. The continuous process of identity (re)negotiation, that is, the reorganising of one's subject position in relation to contextualised linguistic and social factors, has a significant impact on FL students. The present study takes a multi-theoretical approach to investigate the factors involved in the negotiation of Japanese EFL students' emergent bilingual identities through the use of a questionnaire. The results show that the majority of the participants perceived some level of change in their identity, unrelated to any specific determinants. Furthermore, those with longer EFL learning histories, higher proficiency levels, or those majoring in globally-minded studies were more likely to feel they belong to English-speaking (imagined) communities.

This study investigated the psycholinguistic and child-related variables that modulate vocabulary development and the so-called receptive-expressive gap in child L2 learners of Gaelic with English as their L1. In total, 50 6- to 8-year-old English-Gaelic bilingual children attending Gaelic-medium immersion education were administered the English and the Gaelic Crosslinguistic Receptive and Expressive Lexical Tasks (CLTs). On the Gaelic CLT, children performed better on nouns than verbs. Accuracy was modulated by item-related variables such as the estimated age when a word is acquired and its morphophonological complexity. The receptive-expressive gap was larger in the minority L2 than in the majority L1 and did not narrow after 1 year of schooling. The gap was smaller for nouns than verbs in English but not in Gaelic. Exposure to English differentially affected the receptive-expressive gap across languages. This study offers new insights into the psycholinguistic and individual factors affecting the receptive-expressive gap in bilingual children in immersion education.

Second language (L2) researchers have long acknowledged the role of language anxiety in communication processes, such that learners with greater language anxiety tend to be less willing to engage in communication. However, little research has explored links between L2 speakers' perceptions of conversation and dynamic measures of anxiety. Therefore, this study measured 60 L2 English speakers' galvanic skin response (a physiological index of anxiety) during conversation. After the conversation, speakers evaluated themselves and their partner in terms of speech fluency and comprehensibility, engagement, and anxiety, and responded to trait-anxiety and social network questionnaires. Correlational analyses explored relationships between speakers' trait-anxiety, social network characteristics, self- and peer-perceptions and five levels of physiological response during conversation. Findings revealed that high arousal during interaction was related to speakers' negative self-perceptions of speech fluency and negative perceptions of their partner's engagement. Implications are discussed regarding state-anxiety as triggered by partner- or task-specific experiences.

Collaboration between English as a Second Language (ESL) and content teachers to support multilingual students designated as English Learners is a growing but complex phenomenon in U.S. schools, and one that has continued to evolve during the pandemic and related disruptions to schooling. We draw upon ecological perspectives on language learning to consider critical questions about the relationships among collaborative practices, equity, systemic capacity, and instructional quality. Such considerations can inform educational practice and better frame empirical explorations of co-teaching and related forms of collaboration.

Reading in English is an essential skill that emergent bilingual students in the United States (U.S.) must master to be successful in school and to fully take advantage of the affordances reading in English offers. The current meta-analysis examined the extent to which reading instruction improved English reading outcomes for preschool to grade 12 emergent bilingual students in the U.S. Across 38 experimental and quasi-experimental treatment-control group comparisons, teaching reading to these students had a positive impact on multiple aspects of their reading. When standardized and unstandardized reading assessments were aggregated, reading instruction produced small but statistically significant positive average weighted effects across all grades (0.17), for grades 4 to 8 (0.25) and for reading comprehension (0.20). Statistically significant outcomes were also obtained for standardized reading tests across all grades (0.24), preschool to grade 3 (0.17), grades 4 to 8 (0.30), grades 9 to 12 (0.26), word reading measures (0.22), vocabulary (0.17), and reading comprehension (0.21). Variability in effects were associated with type of reading treatments, duration of treatments, and student identified challenges with reading as well as study quality indicators. Recommendations for research and implications for practice are provided.

This study examined the intrinsic, extrinsic, and self-regulatory motives for writing and writing achievement of three groups of third- to fifth-grade students in an urban school district: (a) 189 emergent bilingual students receiving services for English language development (ELD); (b) 374 reclassified bilingual students who had exited ELD programs; and (c) 563 native English-speaking students. Intrinsic and self-regulatory writing motives were significantly higher for emergent bilingual students and reclassified bilingual students than their native English-speaking peers. Extrinsic writing motives were significantly higher for reclassified bilingual students than both emergent bilingual and native English-speaking students. Native English-speaking students scored significantly higher on a district standardized writing achievement test than both reclassified and emergent bilingual students, with reclassified bilingual students scoring significantly higher than emergent bilingual students. Finally, after controlling for variance related to student language status (e.g., emergent bilingual), gender, and grade, motives for writing predicted a small but statistically detectable amount of variance in writing achievement. Implications for practice and research are provided.

Many students learn Turkish as a second language in Turkey. These students, whose first language is Kurdish, learn Turkish at a certain level before starting school. As a result, these students become emergent bilinguals along with school life. On the other hand, some of these students almost do not use Kurdish in their lives and wholly turn to Turkish. Ultimately, all students whose first language is Kurdish continue their education in the same environment with students whose first language is Turkish. As a result, these children lag behind students whose first language is Turkish in many respects. They even lag behind students whose dominant language is Turkish and Kurdish as their first language. This research it is aimed to reveal the differences between the two student groups in the context of written expression skills. The effect of the dominant language difference, preschool education status and socioeconomic level on the written expression skills of primary school students were examined. The research group of 428 primary school fourth-grade students (girl: 201, boy: 227) was determined by criterion sampling method. As a result of the research, it was revealed that the written expression skills of the students whose dominant language is Kurdish remained at a deficient level, and they made more spelling mistakes.

Via care ethics and culturally relevant pedagogy, this article explores the events observed in fifth grade science classrooms of two Mexican American teachers. The participants were observed expressing dichotomous emotional struggles with their feelings towards their Mexican American students. The struggle consisted of a genuine caring attitude with authentic cariño (caring) for their students revealed in reflections about their concern for their Mexican American students' future opportunities and a necessity to ensure student success by adhering to a complicity for the hegemonic White dominant culture's curriculum. This study extends our understanding of what teachers struggle with when teaching Mexican American students on a curriculum that is culturally different from the curriculum their school uses. This study suggests that participants in this ethnographic case study do have authentic cariño and good intentions of providing a care ethic for their Mexican American students, but their actions and ideology reveal the assimilation with the hegemony of the school's culture of standardization, one that promotes a dominant monolingual ideology.

This study aimed to develop the pronunciation skills of students who learned Turkish as a foreign language and determine the extent of the instruction given for that purpose by observing its cognitive effects. It was designed as an in-class action research and carried out with nine students speaking different languages. Of those, five were bilinguals: Four were native speakers of their native tribal language and French, and one was a native speaker of Kazakh and Russian. The remaining four students were native speakers of Arabic. The fMRI findings at the beginning and the end of the study showed that phonological and reading motor processes were better for bilingual learners who were native tribal speakers and learned French and Mongolian as their country's official language, compared with native Arabic monolingual learners. Based on the analysis, it can be stated that an increase in foreign language sound awareness of learners results in the acquisition of more accurate pronunciation skills.

An important part of the grammatical proficiency of students learning Turkish as a foreign language is the use of verb complements in terms of case suffixes used with verbs. The suffixes that determine the relations between nouns and verbs that make up the two main word categories of Turkish are case suffixes. Noun case suffixes, whose main function is to connect nouns to verbs, are one of the most difficult subjects for students learning Turkish as a foreign language. However, there are few studies on teaching noun case suffixes to foreign students. The aim of this study, which was prepared based on the deficiency in the relevant literature, is to determine the usage levels of noun case suffixes in the oral expressions of French bilingual Somalian students learning Turkish. The study group of the research consists of 25 Somalian students studying at the B1, B2 and C1 levels at Bursa Uludag University Turkish Teaching Center in the 2019-2020 academic year and voluntarily participated in this research. The data obtained within the scope of this research, which was designed as a qualitative case study, were analyzed according to the suffix category that provides the relationship between the noun case suffixes and the verbs in the sentence. Other functions of the noun case suffix that provide the connection between nouns and nouns, nouns and prepositions are excluded from the scope of the study. The research data obtained by the semi-structured interview technique were analyzed using frequency analysis, which is one of the sub-techniques of content analysis. As a result of the study, it was determined that 25 French bilingual Somalian students learning Turkish made mistakes at a rate of about half when using the verbs with case suffixes, and they used the nominative case with the least mistakes.

Bilingual children are a more heterogenous group than their monolingual counterparts with respect to the sources of variation in their language learning environments, as well as the wide individual variation in their language abilities. Such heterogeneity in both individual difference factors and language abilities argues for the importance of an individual differences approach in research on bilingual development. The main objective of this article is to provide a review and synthesis of research on the sources of individual differences in the second language (L2) and heritage language (HL) development of child bilinguals. Several child-internal and child-external individual difference factors are discussed with respect to their influence on children's dual language abilities. In addition, the emergent research on individual differences in bilingual children with developmental language disorder is reviewed. Both the theoretical and applied relevance of individual difference approaches to bilingual development are discussed.

Paradis' (2023) keynote article is a timely documentation of the ongoing shift in focus within childhood bilingualism research from investigating the factors that modulate majority or second language (ML/L2) attainment (Chondrogianni & Marinis, 2011) to understanding the sources of variation that lead to minority heritage language (HL) maintenance. This shift of focus into individual differences (IDs) in bilingual performance across both languages reflects converging research carried out in the past twenty years reporting that, when learning barriers are not at stake, bilingual children can reach ML outcomes. It also aligns with research findings suggesting that ML educational or linguistic outcomes are directly related to the successful attainment of HL educational and linguistic milestones, which, in turn, reinforce the need for the HL to be supported.

Purpose: The purpose of this review article is to conduct a critical analysis of state-level policies focusing on the provision of speech-language therapy and special education to children and youth who are racialized emergent bilinguals (REBs) suspected or labeled as dis/abled. Method: We analyzed the state-level policies focusing on speech-language therapy and/or special education of California, Kansas, Florida, and New York. We coded content in terms of labels used to describe REBs; the focus of states' policies, whether the policy mentioned the provision of bilingual services, and the orientation toward bilingualism. Thematic analyses and descriptive statistics were used to analyze the policies, and interrater reliability was calculated. Results: The results of this review revealed that most state-level policies contain English-centric, deficit-based labels to describe REBs and that most focus primarily on the classification and eligibility for dis/ability. Only one state addresses the provision of bilingual education for REBs labeled as dis/abled. The bulk of policies are underpinned by an ideology of "bilingualism as a difference," meaning that the main idea of the policies is that emerging English skills does not result in a dis/ability. Conclusions: Policies do not exist in a vacuum and are influenced by sociopolitical ideologies. The findings of this review highlight the urgency of applying an intersectional, justice-focused approach to the policies and practices impacting REBs suspected and/or labeled as disabled in the fields of speech-language therapy and special education.

This study seeks to empirically explore the relation between multilingual learning experiences and language aptitude. Through employing LLAMA aptitude test battery (Meara, 2005) and a probabilistic version of the serial reaction time (SRT) task (Kaufman et al., 2010), scores from 24 Chinese-English bilinguals and 24 Tibetan-Chinese-English trilinguals were analyzed with One-way Analyses of Variance (ANOVA). LLAMA-B, E, and F sub-tests measured explicit language aptitude, while LLAMA-D sub-test and SRT task measured implicit language aptitude, a cutting-edge that has gained sway in aptitude research. Qualitative and quantitative results showed that trilingual group performed better on the LLAMA-E sub-test than bilingual group, whereas bilingual group outperformed trilingual group on the SRT task. These findings suggested that trilinguals might possess higher explicit aptitude but lower implicit aptitude than bilinguals. Thus, prior language learning experiences might be positively (for explicit aptitude) or negatively (for implicit aptitude) correlated with language aptitude. Additionally, explicit aptitude and implicit aptitude might have a competitive relationship. Possible implications were discussed in this article.

Language diversity in the United States has been rapidly increasing in the last three decades (U.S. Census Bureau, 2015). Children who are under 8 years of age and have at least one parent who speaks a language other than English at home comprise 32% of the nation's young child population (Park et al., 2017), increasing the need for practitioners, researchers, policymakers, and stakeholders to support the strengths and needs of children who have diverse language backgrounds. Linguistically responsive practice is an approach that requires teachers to be familiar with children's linguistic backgrounds and overall developmental strengths and needs, understand functional language practices, and scaffold language development to support participation of children who are learning more than one language in daily routine activities. The purpose of this article is twofold: to discuss (1) linguistically responsive practices and (2) the importance of peer interactions for children who have diverse language backgrounds with a focus on guided play. This article will examine the implementation of Division for Early Childhood of the Council for Exceptional Children (DEC)-recommended practices in the interaction (INT) area, INT2 and INT3 (DEC, 2014).

The purpose of this study was to assess the use of an adapted picture description task described by Eisenberg and Guo to explore the morphosyntactic error patterns of English-Spanish preschool simultaneous bilingual learners. Language samples were collected from 28 bilingual preschool children aged 3 to 5 years. Language samples were elicited in both English and Spanish using a series of pictures and elicitation questions/prompts. Twenty-one participants produced a language sample in only one language (16 in English and 5 in Spanish) and seven participants produced language samples in both languages. Language samples were analyzed for grammaticality and error types. There were a higher number of fragments, tense marker, and grammatical morphemes errors in English. In Spanish, the children demonstrated more argument structure and pronominal form errors than in English. The adapted picture description task demonstrated sensitivity to common errors in English and Spanish and shows promise for use with bilingual populations.

This study examined the role of parents' early home language use in the English reading development of emergent bilinguals (N = 3,058) and how their relations are moderated by children's oral English language proficiency using longitudinal data from kindergarten to eighth grade (ages 6-15 years). Results from multi-group latent basis growth models indicated that emergent bilinguals whose parents used a non-English (native) language more frequently at home when they were in kindergarten started with lower English reading achievement but made greater growth compared to children whose parents used their native language less frequently. Consequently, the effects of parents' non-English language use on English reading achievement dissipated by eighth grade. This growth pattern was more prominent for emergent bilinguals with initially limited English proficiency than for emergent bilinguals with fluent English proficiency. The analyses of reading subskills suggest this pattern is primarily attributable to the delayed English reading acquisition of emergent bilinguals with limited English proficiency in constrained reading skills (Word Reading, Reading Words in Context). Our findings suggest that parents' frequent native language use neither has facilitative effects on English language use nor does it hamper emergent bilinguals' long-term English reading development.

In Canada, approximately 12% of school-aged children are enrolled in French Immersion (FI), with some provinces estimating close to 30%. FI programs are intended to produce bilingual individuals who can functionally communicate in both of Canada's official languages. Yet, we are currently underinformed as to how to identify children with French word reading difficulties in such programs. Within this context, and in the interests of informing early identification of second language reading challenges, we examined early English predictors of French word reading difficulties. We also examined potential overlap of these difficulties as well as the stability of these difficulties over time. A total of 108 children in FI participated, completing measures of English nonverbal intelligence, phonological awareness, rapid automatized naming, and receptive vocabulary in kindergarten, as well as English and French word reading in grades 1, 2, and 3. Logistic regressions revealed that kindergarten English phonological awareness and rapid automatized naming (RAN) distinguished between good and poor French word readers in grade 3, with adequate sensitivity and specificity. These results suggest that English phonological awareness and RAN may be appropriate early skills to identify children at risk of word reading challenges in bilingual programs. Chi-square analyses demonstrated significant overlap of English and French word reading challenges in grades 1, 2, and 3, highlighting the possibility that English and French word reading difficulties do not exist independently. Finally, chi-square analyses revealed retrospectively stable word reading difficulties in English and French. Interestingly, prospective stability was stronger for French than English word reading challenges. Overall, our results underscore the importance of considering the specific nature of word reading difficulties in bilingual readers.

Orthographic knowledge is predicted to be central in the process of children's reading development. We examined both the temporal order between orthographic knowledge and each of word reading and word spelling--effectively, which predicts which by including autoregressive controls--and cross-linguistic transfer between English and French for our emerging bilingual participants. Seven-three children (36 males) were followed from Grades 1 to 3 in a French immersion program in which instruction was entirely in French. We conducted cross-lagged panel models of orthographic knowledge, word reading, and spelling that included controls of phonological awareness, non-verbal ability. In terms of temporal order, word reading (at grade 1) and word spelling (at grade 2) predicted gains in each of English and French orthographic knowledge. In contrast, early orthographic knowledge did not predict gains in word reading or word spelling in either language. In terms of transfer, from their earliest point of measurement, English word reading and spelling consistently predicted later French orthographic knowledge; French word reading and spelling contributed to English orthographic knowledge only from Grade 2. These findings illustrate a dynamic picture of the relations between orthographic knowledge and word reading and spelling both within and across languages, informing current models of each reading with both monolinguals and bilinguals.

The study investigates the effects of bilingualism and biliteracy on thought organisation, and syntactic complexity in the written production in a group of fifty 11-year-old children (M = 10.7) enrolled in 5th and 6th grades in a bilingual school in the south of Brazil. The children's home and community language is Portuguese, and they have been exposed to English at school for 10 hours a week for at least five years. Participants were asked to create a narrative based on a sequence of five images (Cambridge Assessment, 2018), being one in English and one in Portuguese, in a counterbalanced order. Thought organisation (connectivity) was measured through the analysis of graph trajectories performed with the computational tool Speech Graphs (Mota et al., 2014, 2016, 2019) and the analysis of syntactic complexity involved the assessment of T-Units (Hunt, 1965). Results indicated a moderate positive correlation in the attributes of thought connectivity and the levels of syntactic complexity in both languages, demonstrating that, as children advance in the development of more complex writing strategies in Portuguese, they progress in their written production in English to the same extent.

This article examines the Spanish proverb, "quien habla dos idiomas vale por dos," which literally translates to mean he who speaks two languages is worth two people and applies its meaning to immigrant children who are language brokers for their families. Historically, the United States has not promoted multilingualism and even frowned upon language brokering because it is viewed as an adult task taken on by a child. However, recent research shows that language brokering is actually a benefit that aids the family in the acculturation process and assists the child in the journey of becoming bilingual. There is much research already on the benefit of being bilingual. This project set out to show that connecting child language brokers to educational programs could ultimately nurture their bilingual skills and support them to be successful academically. The goals of this project were (a) to link language brokers with current research on benefits of bilingualism, (b) to find any pioneers in the United States leading the way in promoting bilingualism or multilingualism, and (c) to offer next steps.

Due to a lack of science instruction and a need to serve an increasing number of students identifying as Emerging Bilingual, one school district in Oregon sought to develop a new method of integrating science and language instruction. In the model, all teachers taught science with embedded language instruction, three to four days a week, to every K-5 student, during a specific, dedicated time of the school day. This initiative sought to build science content knowledge and language proficiency simultaneously through science investigations that put language as the integral component to learning. The research was designed in collaboration with a local university as part of a long-term research-practice partnership with the goal to understand, refine, and repeat the initiative using a reflective, triangulated case study approach. The partnership utilized three rounds of teacher surveys, teacher interviews, and quantitative analyses of student science standardized test scores to understand how science investigations could build science content knowledge and language proficiency simultaneously. Results showed that the innovative initiative increased the quantity of science teaching in the district, may have increased students' science knowledge, but results also showed that improvements to the model are needed.

This study examines whether foreign language acquisition occurs through sharing information when students participate in an online writing task using English as the lingua franca. It also explores whether the students with higher levels of linguistic knowledge relating to the foreign language share this information with their peers throughout the writing process. The study was conducted in two Spanish classrooms, where the participants were bilingual in both Catalan and Spanish. A pre-questionnaire was used to determine the level of exposure to the English language and English culture outside of the classroom. The students were scored on their responses and then divided into three groups: low-, medium-, and high-level exposure to the English language and culture. A one-way ANOVA was used to determine whether exposure to the English language and culture outside of the classroom would influence writing abilities on the subject matter, and there is an interaction effect between language exposure and the pre-writing task F(2, 57) = 4.752, p = 0.012. Upon the conclusion of the collaborative writing task, a one-way ANOVA was used to determine whether there was an interaction effect between language exposure and the post-writing task F(2, 57) = 2.828 p= .068. In collaborative writing and knowledge building tasks, students learn about the content from their peers, and the information disperses throughout the group so that, upon completion, there is a shared understanding of the content. This study supports these findings; the students with more foreign language knowledge prior to the study disperse their knowledge in the same manner so that the knowledge, including writing in the foreign language, equalizes across the groups.

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) has become the focus of Foreign Language (FL) research within the last decades. CLIL provides a more complete, naturalistic, and meaningful context to FL learning, which has proven to bring many benefits to learners, such as a higher motivation and promotion of creativity, and better results in receptive skills, vocabulary, morphology and fluency. Nevertheless, most CLIL research has focused on primary and secondary level students and, thus, more research is needed with younger learners, namely, pre-primary students. The present study examines the learning of FL vocabulary in pre-primary learners following a soft-CLIL program, as compared to their same age peers following Formal Instruction (FI) of English. Over the course of six months, pre-primary students of two grades, namely 4- and 5-year-old students (N=155), took part in such program, aiming at teaching two curricular preschool units, traditionally taught in the mother tongue (L1), in English in the FL sessions. A longitudinal study was conducted, and students were administered a general vocabulary level pre-test, as well as a target words receptive vocabulary post-test after the two units had been worked on. The focus of the research was on receptive vocabulary acquisition, but age and word frequency effects were also analyzed. Results showed positive tendencies in receptive vocabulary development through soft-CLIL, although not statistically significant. A significant frequency effect was found, indicating that high-frequency words are recalled more easily than lower-frequency ones, but no significant differences were found when comparing learners from the two grades.

The aim of this study is to examine the effect of student-centered listening-speaking activities developed by the researcher on Turkish listening and speaking skills of bilingual Arabian students. In the study, control group experimental design was applied. The subjects were a group of Arabianic 6th graders at a secondary school in Bitlis, Turkey. Students in the experimental group (n=20) were given a total of 24 hours of training which took 12 weeks for 2 hours per week in the spring semester of the 2018-2019 academic year, utilizing listening-speaking training activities developed by the researcher. On the other hand in the control group (n=18), training was provided in accordance with the education curriculum of the Turkish Ministry of National Education (MEB) within the specified period. Listening Skills Self-Assessment Scale (LSSAS) and Turkish Speaking Skills Scale (TSSS) were used to collect pretest and post-test data. The Listening Skills Self-Assessment Scale (LSSAS), was completed by the students in the pre/posttest. The Turkish Speaking Skills Scale (LSSS) was completed by the researchers in the pretest and post-test while the students were making their speech. Based on the results of independent samples "t"-test, it was concluded that the listening-speaking training carried out with the student centered activities positively affected the Turkish speaking and listening skills of the bilingual Arabian students.