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Due to the blockage of seawater, seafloor displacement cannot be directly measured by space geodesy. The combination of Global Navigation Satellite Systems‐acoustic ranging (GNSS‐A) has been used to overcome the electromagnetic barrier, so that a GNSS‐determined sea surface vessel's coordinates can be transformed to seafloor benchmarks in a global reference frame. Due to the high cost and science priorities, previous GNSS‐A studies mainly targeted relatively deep water and a minimum of three transponders were used to form an array, equivalent to a precision geodetic station. With recent developments in unmanned autonomous surface vessels, low cost GNSS‐A surveys are poised to become practical. Here we demonstrate that with a carefully designed surveying trajectory, Wave Glider‐based GNSS‐A surveying of a single transponder in shallow water can provide centimeter‐level accuracy on horizontal seafloor positioning, even if the sound speed model deviates from the actual value by a few meters per second. Results from a nine‐month experiment conducted at ∼54 m water depth show that the repeatability of the seafloor horizontal positioning is better than 2 cm. When conditions allow, the acoustic observations should be collected symmetrically about the transponder and data redundancies are recommended to reduce the error associated with time‐dependent variations in sound speed. Plain Language Summary: Seafloor geodesy is important for monitoring offshore strain processes. Global Navigation Satellite Systems‐acoustic ranging (GNSS‐A) uses sound signals traveling in water as rulers to measure the distances between the sea surface vessel and the seafloor sensor (transponder), so that the GNSS‐determined sea surface vessel's coordinates can be transformed to the seafloor through triangulation. Multiple transponders deployed on the seafloor are often needed to form an array so that noise caused by irregular variations in the sound signals can be reduced. In shallow water, due to the relatively short distance, the range distortion caused by a sound signal's refraction is smaller, and the time it takes to conduct each complete cycle of survey is shorter. These conditions allow the seafloor displacements to be measured with centimeter‐level accuracy using only one transponder. Key Points: For single transponder Global Navigation Satellite Systems‐acoustic ranging in shallow water, seafloor vertical position estimation is sensitive to sound speed error and variationA geometrically symmetric surveying trajectory is preferable for error reduction in horizontal seafloor positioningSeafloor horizontal positions were measured with <2 cm repeatability at ∼54 m water depth over five repeat surveys with Wave Gliders [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The boundary between the overriding and subducting plates is locked along some portions of the Cascadia subduction zone. The extent and location of locking affects the potential size and frequency of great earthquakes in the region. Because much of the boundary is offshore, measurements on land are incapable of completely defining a locked zone in the up‐dip region. Deformation models indicate that a record of seafloor height changes on the accretionary prism can reveal the extent of locking. To detect such changes, we have initiated a series of calibrated pressure measurements using an absolute self‐calibrating pressure recorder. A piston‐gauge calibrator under careful metrological considerations produces an absolutely known reference pressure to correct seafloor pressure observations to an absolute value. We report an accuracy of about 25 ppm of the water depth, or 0.02 kPa (0.2 cm equivalent) at 100 m to 0.8 kPa (8 cm equivalent) at 3,000 m. These campaign survey‐style absolute pressure measurements on seven offshore benchmarks in a line extending 100 km westward from Newport, Oregon from 2014 to 2017 establish a long‐term, sensor‐independent time series that can, over decades, reveal the extent of vertical deformation and thus the extent of plate locking and place initial limits on rates of subsidence or uplift. Continued surveys spanning years could serve as calibration values for co‐located or nearby continuous pressure records and provide useful information on possible crustal deformation rates, while epoch measurements spanning decades would provide further limits and additional insights on deformation. Plain Language Summary: The Cascadia subduction zone has produced large earthquakes and tsunamis whose potential size and interval is affected by the amount and distribution of locking between the tectonic plates. A large portion of the subduction zone is offshore, where typical land‐ and satellite‐based methods are ineffective at measuring crustal changes. Seafloor water pressure observations can be used to measure height changes, but pressure gauges inherently drift at rates typically greater than the expected vertical seafloor deformation rates. The absolute self‐calibrating pressure recorder (ASCPR) measures the true, absolute, sensor‐independent seafloor pressure by addressing and correcting sources of error caused by the internal piston gauge calibrator and recording pressure gauges. The accuracy of our measurements is about 25 ppm of the water depth, or about 2.5 cm of height per 1,000 m of water. Campaign survey‐style measurements using the ASCPR at seven benchmarks off the coast of Newport, Oregon from 2014 to 2017 establish a long‐term record of absolute measurements that can be referenced by studies decades or more in the future or can estimate and correct drift of nearby continuous pressure gauges. Continued measurements can provide insights on seafloor deformation and thus locking in Cascadia. Key Points: Campaign‐style surveys of absolute calibrated seafloor pressure measurements were made in the Cascadia subduction zone from 2014 to 2017These sensor‐independent measurements act as long‐term, absolute reference values that can be used for future vertical deformation studiesWe document and quantify the sources of error in the technique with a total uncertainty of ∼25 ppm, or ∼0.25 kPa per 1,000 m water depth [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: Pressure measurements made on the seafloor at depths between 1500 and 1700 m at Axial Seamount, an active submarine volcano on the Juan de Fuca Ridge in the northeast Pacific Ocean, show evidence that it has been inflating since its 1998 eruption. Data from continuously recording bottom pressure sensors at the center of Axial''s caldera suggest that the rate of inflation was highest in the months right after the eruption (20 cm/month) and has since declined to a steady rate of ∼15 cm/year. Independent campaign-style pressure measurements made each year since 2000 at an array of seafloor benchmarks with a mobile pressure recorder mounted on a remotely operated vehicle also indicate uplift is occurring in the caldera at a rate up to 22±1.3 cm/year relative to a point outside the caldera. The repeatability of the campaign-style pressure measurements progressively improved each year from ±15 cm in 2000 to ±0.9 cm in 2004, as errors were eliminated and the technique was refined. Assuming that the uplift has been continuous since the 1998 eruption, these observations suggest that the center of the caldera has re-inflated about 1.5±0.1 m, thus recovering almost 50% of the 3.2 m of subsidence that was measured during the 1998 eruption. This rate of inflation can be used to calculate a magma supply rate of 14×106 m3/year. If this rate of inflation continues, it also suggests a recurrence interval of ∼16 years between eruptions at Axial, assuming that it will be ready to erupt again when it has re-inflated to 1998 levels. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]