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Investigation of sea-level positions during the highly-dynamic Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS 3: 29–61 kyrs BP) proves difficult because: (i) in stable and subsiding areas, coeval coastal sediments are currently submerged at depths of few to several tens of meters below the present sea level, (ii) in uplifting areas, the preservation of geomorphic features and sedimentary records is limited due to the erosion occurred during the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) with sea level at a depth of −130 m, followed by marine transgression that determined the development of ravinement surfaces. This study discusses previous research in the Mediterranean and elsewhere, and describes new fossiliferous marine deposits overlaying the metamorphic bedrock at Cannitello (Calabria, Italy). Radiocarbon ages of marine shells (about 43 kyrs cal BP) indicate that these deposits, presently between 28 and 30 m above sea level, formed during MIS 3.1. Elevation correction of the Cannitello outcrops (considered in an intermediate-to-far-field position with respect to the ice sheet) with the local vertical tectonic rate and Glacial Isostatic Adjustment (GIA) rate allows the proposal of a revision of the eustatic depth for this highstand. Our results are consistent with recently proposed estimates based on a novel ice sheet modelling technique.

This study presents a world review as well as new additional data in form of submerged speleothems that are used for paleo sea level reconstructions. Speleothems significantly contributed to the understanding of the global and regional sea level variations during the Middle and Late Quaternary. The studied speleothems cover the last 1.4 Myr and are focused mainly on Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 1, 2, 3, 5.1, 5.3, 5.5, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3 and 7.5. Results reveal that submerged speleothems represent extraordinary archives providing detailed information on former sea level changes. We present also new results from stalactites collected in central Mediterranean sea, at Favignana and Ustica islands (Sicily, Italy), both characterized by continental, phreatic or marine layers. The study and analysis of the latter speleothems provide results of great interest for relative sea level changes over the last 1000 years.

The coasts of the Mediterranean Sea are dynamic habitats in which human activities have been conducted for centuries and which feature micro-tidal environments with about 0.40 m of range. For this reason, human settlements are still concentrated along a narrow coastline strip, where any change in the sea level and coastal dynamics may impact anthropic activities. In the frame of the RITMARE and the Copernicus Projects, we analyzed light detection and ranging (LiDAR) and Copernicus Earth Observation data to provide estimates of potential marine submersion for 2100 for 16 small-sized coastal plains located in the Italian peninsula and four Mediterranean countries (France, Spain, Tunisia, Cyprus) all characterized by different geological, tectonic and morphological features. The objective of this multidisciplinary study is to provide the first maps of sea-level rise scenarios for 2100 for the IPCC RCP 8.5 and Rahmstorf (2007) projections for the above affected coastal zones, which are the locations of touristic resorts, railways, airports and heritage sites. On the basis of our model (eustatic projection for 2100, glaciohydrostasy values and tectonic vertical movement), we provide 16 high-definition submersion maps. We estimated a potential loss of land for the above areas of between about 148 km2 (IPCC-RCP8.5 scenario) and 192 km2 (Rahmstorf scenario), along a coastline length of about 400 km.

The investigation of submerged speleothems for sea level studies has made significant contributions to the understanding of the global and regional sea level variations during the Middle and Late Quateranry. This has been especially the case for the Mediterranean Sea, where more than 300 submerged speleothems sampled in 32 caves have been analysed so far. Here, we present a comprehensive review of the results obtained from the study of submerged speleothems since 1978. The studied speleothems cover the last 1.4 Ma and are focused mainly on Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 1, 2, 3, 5.1, 5.3, 5.5, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3 and 7.5. Results reveal that submerged speleothems represent extraordinary archives providing accurate information on former sea level changes, also considering that the Mediterranean Sea is devoid of any tropical corals since the Miocene. New results from a stalagmite collected at Palinuro (Campania, Italy) characterized by marine overgrowth are also reported. The measured elevations of speleothems are contaminated by the local response to glacial- and hydro-isostatic adjustment (GIA), and thus might significantly deviate from the global eustatic signal. Age and altitude comparation between Mediterranean speleothems, flowstone from Bahamas with local GIA provide a new scenario for MIS 5 and 7 sea level reconstrutions.

Areas of the Mediterranean Sea are dynamic habitats in which human activities have been conducted for centuries and which feature micro-tidal environments with about 0.40 m of range. For this reason, human settlements are still concentrated along a narrow coastline strip, where any change in the sea level and coastal dynamics may impact anthropic activities. We analyzed light detection and ranging (LiDAR) and Copernicus Earth observation data. The aim of this research is to provide estimates and detailed maps (in three coastal plain of Sardinia (Italy) and in the Pontina Plain (southern Latium, Italy) of: (i) the past marine transgression occurred during MIS 5.5 highstand 119 kyrss BP, (ii) the coastline regression occurred during the last glacial maximum MIS 2 (21.5 krs cal BP), and (iii) the potential marine submersion for 2100 and 2300. The objective of this multidisciplinary study is to provide maps of sea level rise future scenarios using the IPCC RCP 8.5 2019 projections and glacio-hydro-isostatic movements for the above selected coastal zones (considered tectonically stable), which are the locations of touristic resorts, railways and heritage sites. We estimated a potential loss of land for the above areas of between about 146 km2 (IPCC 2019-RCP8.5 scenario) and 637 km2 along a coastline length of about 268 km.

The investigation of submerged speleothems for sea level studies has made significant contributions to the understanding of the global and regional sea level variations during the Middle and Late Quaternary. This has especially been the case for the Mediterranean Sea, where more than 300 submerged speleothems sampled in 32 caves have been analysed so far. Here, we present a comprehensive review of the results obtained from the study of submerged speleothems since 1978. The studied speleothems cover the last 1.4 Myr and are mainly focused on Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 1, 2, 3, 5.1, 5.3, 5.5, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, and 7.5. The results reveal that submerged speleothems represent extraordinary archives providing accurate information on former sea level changes. New results from a stalagmite collected at Palinuro (Campania, Italy) and characterized by marine overgrowth are also reported. The measured elevations of speleothems are affected by the local response to glacial and hydro-isostatic adjustment (GIA), and thus might significantly deviate from the global eustatic signal. A comparison of the ages and altitude values of the Mediterranean speleothems and flowstone from the Bahamas with local GIA provides a new scenario for MIS 5 and 7 sea level reconstructions.

This study presents a global overview of the submerged speleothems used to reconstruct paleo sea levels and reports new results from two stalactites collected in the Mediterranean Sea. Coastal cave deposits significantly contributed to the understanding of global and regional sea-level variations during the Middle and Late Quaternary. The studied speleothems cover the last 1.4 Myr and focused mainly on Marine Isotope Stages (MIS) 1, 2, 3, 5.1, 5.3, 5.5, 7.1, 7.2, 7.3 and 7.5. The results indicate that submerged speleothems represent extraordinary archives that can provide detailed information on former sea-level changes. The two stalactites collected in the central Mediterranean Sea, at Favignana and Ustica islands (Sicily, Italy), are both characterized by continental, phreatic or marine layers. The U-Th and 14C ages of the new speleothems provide results of great interest for relative sea-level changes over the last 1000 years.

The City of Venice and the surrounding lagoonal ecosystem are highly vulnerable to variations in relative sea level. In the past ~150 years, this was characterized by a secular linear trend of about 2.5 mm/year resulting from the combined contributions of vertical land movement and sea-level rise. This literature review reassesses and synthesizes the progress achieved in understanding, estimating and predicting the individual contributions to local relative sea level, with focus on the most recent publications. The current best estimate of historical sea-level rise in Venice, based on tide-gauge data after removal of subsidence effects, is 1.23 ± 0.13 mm/year (period from 1872 to 2019). Subsidence thus contributed to about half of the observed relative sea-level rise over the same period. A higher – yet more uncertain – rate of sea-level rise is observed during recent decades, estimated from tide-gauge data to be about 2.76 ± 1.75 mm/year in the period 1993–2019 for the climatic component alone. An unresolved issue is the contrast between the observational capacity of tide gauges and satellite altimetry, with the latter tool not covering the Venice Lagoon. Water mass exchanges through the Gibraltar Strait currently constitute a source of substantial uncertainty for estimating future deviations of the Mediterranean mean sea-level trend from the global-mean value. Subsidence and regional atmospheric and oceanic circulation mechanisms can deviate Venetian relative sea-level trends from the global mean values for several decades. Regional processes will likely continue to determine significant interannual and interdecadal variability of Venetian sea level with magnitude comparable to that observed in the past, as well as non-negligible differential trends. Our estimate of the likely range of mean sea-level rise in Venice by 2100 due to climate change is presently estimated between 11 and 110 centimetres. An improbable yet possible high-end scenario linked to strong ice-sheet melting yields about 170 centimetres of mean sea-level rise in Venice by 2100. Projections of natural and human induced vertical land motions are currently not available, but historical evidence demonstrates that they can produce a significant contribution to the relative sea-level rise in Venice, further increasing the hazard posed by climatically-induced sea-level changes.

Following the pioneering work of Schmiedt et al. (1972) on establishing the level of the Tyrrhenian Sea in Antiquity, a number of studies have examined this evidence from Roman Period fish tanks but with significantly different outcomes due primarily to different interpretations of the functional level of these pools at the time of their construction. As part of a longer term project to understand the causes of sea-level change around the Italian coast, we have reexamined and resurveyed 12 well-documented fish tanks, all based on the same construction principles, from the Tyrrhenian coast (between Formia and Orbetello) for which it can be established that they were in open contact with the sea at the time of operation. The structural features that tidally control the exchange of water used to define the ancient local sea level are identified as the channel thresholds, the sluice gate and sliding post positions, and the lowest level crepido. These are consistent for all the tanks examined, permitting the local sea-level change over the past 2000 years to be established at each location with a precision of ± 20 cm and against which other coastal archaeological features can be calibrated. We conclude that published local sea levels that are based on the present-day elevations of the foundations of protective walls constructed around the tanks and lie ~ 50 cm above our inferred levels are inconsistent with the successful functioning of the water exchange and have to be rejected. In one case, for Santa Liberata, we have been able to calibrate our interpretation against sedimentary evidence from the nearby Orbetello Lagoon that confirm our interpretation of the functional control level of the tanks and we conclude that the accuracy of our local sea levels is also ± 20 cm. The causes of sea-level change along this section of the coast are several, including land motion driven by tectonic and glacio-isostatic processes and any change in ocean volume. The individual estimates for the observed local sea levels range from − 0.9 to − 1.5 m with a mean value of − 1.22 ± 0.20 m. These values show that the spatial variability of the local levels is small and consistent with model-inferences of the glacio-isostatic process that indicate near-constant contributions for this section of coast and with tectonic inference from the elevations of the Last Interglacial shoreline.

The endemic Mediterranean reef building vermetid gastropods Dendropoma petraeum complex (Dendropoma spp) and Vermetus triquetrus develop bio-constructions (rims) on rocky shorelines at about Mean Sea Level (MSL) and are therefore commonly used as relative sea-level (RSL) markers. In this study, we use elevations and age data of vermetid reefs to (1) re-assess the vertical uncertainties of these biological RSL indicators, and (2) evaluate the vertical growth rates along a Mediterranean east-west transect, in attempt to explain the differences found in both growth rates and uncertainties. In Israel, Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) and laser measurements relative to the local datum show that the reef surfaces mainly occupy the upper intertidal zone with variations in elevation from +0.51 ± 0.07 m to +0.13 ± 0.05 m along the coast. However, in specific sites the vertical uncertainty exceeds the tidal range. In some places the local vermetid species D. anguliferum and V. triquetrus appear to alternate along the vertical rim profiles. This study documents a spatial variability of vertical growth rates, ranging from ~1 mm yr−1 in Israel and Crete, to ~0.1–0.2 mm yr−1 in NW Sicily and Spain. The order of magnitude of the difference in growth rates correlates with the east-west spatial thermal gradient of Sea-Surface Temperature (SST). Preferential skeleton deposition of D. petraeum and V. triquetrus measured by growth axis δ18O analysis shows that most calcification occurs at SST above the mean annual value. These findings indicate that vermetid reefs are a site-specific RSL indicator, displaying various vertical uncertainties and inner-structure complexities. Local data on the indicative range of vermetids are required when reconstructing relative sea-level changes using fossil vermetids.

Calabria is one of the most complex geological regions of the Mediterranean basin, which experienced large earthquakes and uplift and is still undergoing active tectonics. Along its coasts are located archaeological sites that can be used as powerful indicators of the relative vertical movements between land and sea since their construction. This paper presents and discusses data on the relative sea-level change as estimated from maritime archaeological indicators of the last ~2.0 ka BP existing along the Tyrrhenian coast of Briatico. These sites still show the remnants of a Roman age fish tank and a submerged breakwater about 320 m long.The palaeo sea level has been obtained measuring the functional elevation of the significant archaeological markers. Their elevation was compared against the latest predicted sea level curve for the Holocene along the Tyrrhenian coast of Calabria. As this coastal area is affected by significant and continuous vertical tectonic uplift during Pleistocene, the data show the counterbalance between coastal uplift and relative sea level change caused by the glacio-hydro-isostasy, acting since the construction of these archaeological sites. The sum of these movements determined an about null relative sea level change for this location. These data are in contrast with other part of the tectonically stable areas of the Mediterranean and provide evidence that crustal uplift continued in the last 1806 ± 50 y at a rate of 0.65 mm/y. © 2012 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA.

Through the analysis of geomorphological processes coupled to archaeological time markers in one selected site – Ognina in south-eastern Sicily – this paper investigates ritual practices and sacred places associated with sea-level change and shoreline locations. The interdisciplinary approach adopted in this research also provides new data on relative sea-level change during the late Holocene, while at the same time bringing together diverse approaches and methods for the analysis of submerged landscapes. It also aims to act as a blueprint for future directions in this specific field.

We depict the relative sea-level rise scenarios for the year 2100 from four areas of the Italian peninsula. Our estimates are based on the Rahmstorf (2007) and IPCC-AR5 reports 2013 for the RCP-8.5 scenarios ( www.ipcc.ch ) of climate change, adjusted for the rates of vertical land movements (isostasy and tectonics). These latter are inferred from the elevation of MIS 5.5 deposits and from late Holocene sea-level indicators, matched against sea-level predictions for the same periods using the glacio-hydro-isostatic model of Lambeck et al. (2011). We focus on a variety of tectonic settings: the subsiding North Adriatic coast (including the Venice lagoon), two tectonically stable Sardinia coastal plains (Oristano and Cagliari), and the slightly uplifting Taranto coastal plain, in Apulia. Maps of flooding scenarios are shown on high-resolution Digital Terrain Models mostly based on Lidar data. The expected relative sea-level rise by 2100 will change dramatically the present-day morphology, potentially flooding up to about 5500 km2 of coastal plains at elevations close to present-day sea level. The subsequent loss of land will impact the environment and local infrastructures, suggesting land planners and decision makers to take into account these scenarios for a cognizant coastal management. Our method developed for the Italian coast can be applied worldwide in other coastal areas expected to be affected by marine ingression due to global climate change.

International audience; The coast of the Mediterranean provide several remnants of ancient coastal quarries, which are now useful to study sea level change occurring during the last millennia. Millstones quarries were exploited with same quarrying techniques from rocks like beachrocks, sandstones or similar lithologies, were shaped to be suitable to grind olives, seeds and wheat, to produce oil and flour, or to break apart soft rocks. In this study we integrated historical sources, aerial photography, field surveys and palaeo sea-level modelling to investigate a number of millstones quarries with the aim to asses the intervening sea level change that occurred since the quarries were abandoned. We investigated on their chronology, spatial distribution and spatial relationship to the sea-level. Our results indicate that most of these were carved close to sea level between 1.45 ka and 0.25 ka cal BP, but mainly around 0.45 cal ka BP. Despite the uncertainties associated with the chronology in, we found good agreement between their lowest elevation (between 0.33 m and -0.06 m) and the paleo sea-levels, as predicted by the GIA models. (C) 2016 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

In this paper we present and discuss data concerning the morphostructural evolution at Ustica Island (Tyrrhenian Sea, Italy) during Late Quaternary. New insights on the relative sea-level changes of Ustica are coming from data collected during a geomorphological field survey around the island, together with the bathymetric analysis of the surrounding seabed and 14C datings on samples of speleothems, flowstones and marine shells found inside three selected sea caves. The survey was mainly accomplished on June 2015 through the first complete snorkel investigation off the about 18 km-long volcanic coast of the island, which allowed to precisely define location, relationship and morphometric features of coastal landforms associated with modern sea level. This study highlights the occurrence, for the first time in the Mediterranean, of tidal notches in correspondence of carbonate inclusions in volcanic rocks. The elevation of the modern tidal notch suggests that no significant vertical deformations occurred in the southeastern and eastern sectors of Ustica in the last 100 years. However, the presence of pillow lavas along the coast demonstrates that Ustica was affected by a regional uplift since the Late Quaternary, as also confirmed by MIS5.5 deposits located at about 30 m a.s.l., which suggests an average uplift rate of 0.23 mm/y. Radiocarbon dating of fossil barnacles collected inside the Grotta Segreta cave indicate an age of 1823 ± 104 cal. BP. The difference in height with respect to living barnacles in the same site suggests that their present elevation could be related to stick-slip coseismic deformations caused by the four earthquake sequences (two of which with Mw = 4.63 ± 0.46) that strongly struck the island between 1906 and 1924. © 2017 Elsevier B.V.

We present and discuss the genesis, age and evolution of indented landforms carved at sea level in correspondence of carbonatic headlands in three sites of the central Mediterranean coasts, between Marseille (France) and Balzi Rossi (Italy), the island of Tavolara (Sardinia, Italy) and the promontory of Tindari (Sicily, Italy). The shape of these anomalous notches landforms can be referred to is very similar to tidal notches, despite their genesis and morphometric parameters are different from those suggested by other Authors for the central Mediterranean area. Two of these sites are located in tectonically stable areas, while the third falls is located in an uplifting area. Those The notches we investigated along the coast of southern France, are submerged notch-type landforms located in the vicinities surroundings of current modern tidal notches. At Tavolara island, these anomalous notches are placed at about 25 m b.s.l. these landforms and have the shape of “mushroom-like notches”. Finally, those investigated along the metamorphic-carbonatic promontory of Tindari, are marine and abrasional notches, that have been uplifted, likely during the Holocene.

Late Holocene (∼6.5 ka) shorelines represented by tidal notches, beach deposits, wave-cut terraces and intertidal organic rims are raised from few decimetres up to 5.5 m above the present sea level in the southern part of the Calabrian Arc, southern Italy. At five localities (Capo Vaticano and Scilla in southern Calabria and Taormina, Schisò, Capo Milazzo in north-eastern Sicily), the uplifted paleo-shorelines form a distinct vertical sequence where the older shorelines rest invariably above the younger ones. Such arrangement documents the occurrence of abrupt uplift events that, within the limits imposed by existing age controls, we attribute to ancient earthquakes. A comprehensive appraisal of published studies has allowed to draw an inventory with a total of possibly sixteen earthquakes which, based on the amount of shoreline displacement (∼0.5-2 m) and the length of coastal section involved in uplift, were likely to be of strong size. It appears that the amount of uplift decreased with time during the Late Holocene at all sites but Capo Vaticano, where it remained almost stationary. The co-seismic events appear grouped within four temporal clusters, during which uplift occurred at most of the five coastal sectors investigated here. These clusters spanned time intervals whose duration, although difficult to bracket with precision, is of few hundred years, and are separated by longer (∼0.5-1.5 ka) periods of apparent tectonic quiescence. The sources of co-seismic uplifts are still undefined, and should be searched between normal faults in the stretched Calabrian upper crust, or lower crustal thrust faults related to the Ionian subduction. © Società Geologica Italiana, Roma 2017.

We investigated archaeological sites located along the coasts of central Apulia (Italy) to estimate the relative sea level changes which have occurred in this region since the Bronze Age, and test the most recent model of predicted sea level for this region. Surveys focused on six sites located on both the Adriatic and Ionian coasts of Apulia at the feet of the carbonatic Murge plateau, a tectonically stable zone as of the last 125 ka. The sites present the remains of ancient settlements, ranging from the Bronze Age (circa II millennium BC), to the Messapian and Magna Grecia Age (c. 2.5 ka BP), the Roman (c. 2 ka BP) and Middle Ages (c. 1 ka BP). The archaeological sea level markers investigated in these sites provided new insight into the history of the relative sea level changes which have occurred in this region during the last c. 3.3 ka BP. Data from 17 archaeological settlements from the above-mentioned sites, placed above or below the present sea level, were analyzed. The intervening relative sea level changes successive to their construction were estimated via the submergence of the functional elevations of significant architectural features related to the mean sea level at the time during which the settlements were functioning. The r.s.l. changes were estimated using detailed topographic surveys, tide analyses and/or hydrodynamic equations. Although not all archaeological markers allowed univocal interpretations, r.s.l. rise at about 2.25 ± 0.20 m as of the Bronze Age, and at least 0.90 ± 0.20 m in the last 2.0/1.5 ka was estimated. A comparison between the elevation of the marker and two different predicted sea level models seems to confirm a tectonic stability of the investigated region in the last c. 3.3 ka BP.

This article reviews key data and debates focused on relative sea-level changes since the Last Interglacial (approximately the last 132,000 years) in the Mediterranean Basin, and their implications for past human populations. Geological and geomorphological landscape studies are critical to archaeology. Coastal regions provide a wide range of resources to the populations that inhabit them. Coastal landscapes are increasingly the focus of scholarly discussions from the earliest exploitation of littoral resources and early hominin cognition, to the inundation of the earliest permanently settled fishing villages and eventually, formative centres of urbanisation. In the Mediterranean, these would become hubs of maritime transportation that gave rise to the roots of modern seaborne trade. As such, this article represents an original review of both the geo-scientific and archaeological data that specifically relate to sea-level changes and resulting impacts on both physical and cultural landscapes from the Palaeolithic until the emergence of the Classical periods. Our review highlights that the interdisciplinary links between coastal archaeology, geomorphology and sea-level changes are important to explain environmental impacts on coastal human societies and human migration. We review geological indicators of sea level and outline how archaeological features are commonly used as proxies for measuring past sea levels, both gradual changes and catastrophic events. We argue that coastal archaeologists should, as a part of their analyses, incorporate important sea-level concepts, such as indicative meaning. The interpretation of the indicative meaning of Roman fishtanks, for example, plays a critical role in reconstructions of late Holocene Mediterranean sea levels. We identify avenues for future work, which include the consideration of glacial isostatic adjustment (GIA) in addition to coastal tectonics to explain vertical movements of coastlines, more research on Palaeolithic island colonisation, broadening of Palaeolithic studies to include materials from the entire coastal landscape and not just coastal resources, a focus on rescue of archaeological sites under threat by coastal change, and expansion of underwater archaeological explorations in combination with submarine geomorphology. This article presents a collaborative synthesis of data, some of which have been collected and analysed by the authors, as the MEDFLOOD (MEDiterranean sea-level change and projection for future FLOODing) community, and highlights key sites, data, concepts and ongoing debates.

After the Last Glacial Maximum, some 21,000 years BP, the sea level rose from −130 m to its present-day position. This process of marine transgression inundated or eroded palaeolandscapes to varying degrees, resulting in the landward movement of the shoreline. The transgression velocity (TV), i.e., the velocity at which the shoreline migrated landwards, depends on evaluating the balance between the rate of relative sea level rise and the slope of the transgressed palaeotopography. It has a key role in determining the possibilities for reconstructing palaeoenvironments, the potential preservation of archaeological sites and the socio-economic and psychological impact of sea-level rise on past human populations. In this chapter we present a simple conceptual and computational approach to reconstructing the transgression velocity on shelf areas, making use of Digital Terrain Models (DTMs) of seafloor topography coupled with relative sea level curves, and discuss the different outcomes and limitations at different spatial scales, ranging from the continental (European seas) to the ultra-local scale.

In order to assess the effects of possible future sea-level rise in the Sele plain, the lowlands prone to inundation and the rate of coastal erosion in the years 2050 and 2100 have been discussed and some conclusions are here proposed. The sea level at these two dates was calculated as the combination of three components: response of Italian coastal zones to the past deglaciation, variations in ocean volume due to the global warming and vertical land movements. The morpho-stratigraphical data, chronologically supported by C-14 and by archeo-tephro-stratigraphical dating, have allowed the identification of paleo-sea levels of the upper Pleistocene and Holocene (Amato et al. 2011). Such paleo-sea levels compared with those of the tectonically stable areas (Lambeck et al. 2011), permitted the detection of the different vertical land movements in the study area. In particular, in the SE sector of the coastal plain, the Holocene paleo-sea levels are slightly higher (ca. 1-2 m). These values could be considered due to a gentle uplift of the area during Holocene times (0.22 mm/year). In the central sector of the plain, near the Sele river mouth and in the NW sector, between the Sele and Tusciano river mouths, the altitude of the Late Quaternary coastal and lagoonal deposits are slightly lower (ca. 2-3 m). These values could be related to a gentle subsidence of the area during the Holocene (0.4 mm/year). The sea level rise of 5.9 mm/year (IPCC 2007) and 14 mm/year (Rahmstorf 2007) was considered to represent the maximum trends in the ocean volume variation at global scale. The third component, the glacio-hydro-isostasy, was represented by the value of 0.44 mm/year identified by Lambeck et al. (2011) at the Sele plain. The sum of these three components allowed to identify three sea-level scenarios slightly different for the northern and the southern sector of Sele plain, with values ranging from 357 to 1,526 mm and from 307 to 1,424 mm, respectively. For each scenario a simple approach was used, mainly based on the topographic elevation analysis of study area, applied to identify the extension of possible areas of inundation. It corresponds to a minimum value of about 0.42 km(2) for the 2050 AD and a maximum value of 7.6 km(2) for the 2100. Furthermore, according to the methodology proposed by Davidson-Arnott (2005), also the beach erosion was evaluated. The computations showed a potential mean landward retreat of the shoreline ranging from 19 to 93 m.

This paper provides new relative sea level data inferred from coastal archaeological sites located along the Turkish coasts of the Gulf of Fethye (8 sites), and Israel, between Akziv and Caesarea (5 sites). The structures selected are those that, for effective functioning, can be accurately related to sea level at the time of their construction. Thus their positions with respect to present sea level provide a measure of the relative sea level change since their time of construction. Useful information was obtained from the investigated sites spanning an age range of ˜2.3–˜1.6 ka BP. The inferred changes in relative sea level for the two areas are distinctly different, from a rise of 2.41 to 4.50 m in Turkey and from 0 to 0.18 m in Israel. Sea level change is the combination of several processes, including vertical tectonics, glacio–hydro-isostatic signals associated with the last glacial cycle, and changes in ocean volume. For the Israel section, the present elevations of the MIS-5.5 Tyrrhenian terraces occur at a few meters above present sea level and vertical tectonic displacements are small. Data from GPS and tide gauge measurements also indicate that any recent vertical movements are small. The MIS-5.5 shorelines are absent from the investigated section of the Turkish coast, consistent with crustal subsidence associated with the Hellenic Arc. The isostatic signals for the Israel section of the coast are also small (ranging from −0.11 mm/yr to 0.14 mm/yr, depending on site and earth model) and the observed (eustatic) average sea level change, corrected for this contribution, is a rise of 13.5 ± 2.6 cm during the past ˜2 ka. This is attributed to the time-integrated contribution to sea level from a combination of thermal expansion and other increases in ocean volume. The observed sea levels from the Turkish sites, in contrast, indicate a much greater rise of up to 2.2 mm/yr since 2.3 ka BP occurring in a wide area between Knidos and Kekova. The isostatic signal here is also one of a rising sea level (of up to ˜1 mm/yr and site and earth-model dependent) and the corrected tectonic rate of land subsidence is ˜1.48 mm/yr. This is the primary cause of dramatic relative sea level rise for this part of the coast.

Published and new sea level data are used to provide projections of sea level change in Italy for the year 2100 by adding new isostatic and tectonic component to the IPCC and Rahmstorf projections. Comparison of the observations from more than 130 sites (with different geomorphological and archaeological sea level markers) with the predicted sea level curves provides estimates of the vertical tectonic contribution to the relative sea level change. The results are based on the most recent ANU model for the ice sheets of both hemispheres, including an alpine deglaciation model. On the basis of the eustatic, tectonic and isostatic components to the sea level change, projections are provided for marine inundation scenarios for the Italian coastal plains for the year 2100, that today are at elevations close to current sea level.

Olbia Gulf, located in northeastern Sardinia, is bordered by granite, metamorphic rock, and limestones (Capo Figari and Tavolara Island). It has been an important merchant harbour for three thousand years. Tidal notches in limestone, considered one of the best sea level markers, are present between 5.1 and 8.6 m a.s.l. A fossil beach deposit on Tavolara Island is of Tyrrhenian age (MIS 5.5, 125 ka). Between 1999 and 2001, during the building of a new Olbia harbour tunnel, many shipwrecks hidden under recent fine sediments have been discovered. The archaeological excavation (380 x 20 m, to the surface of the carbonate bedrock at 4 m depth) was done by the Soprintendenza per i Beni Archeologici per le provincie di Sassari e Nuoro (Olbia branch). During the archaeological excavation campaign, thousands of ceramics, other materials which were not in situ , and 24 shipwrecks of different age and size were recovered. Eleven of these wrecks were sunk while they were still in the harbour during an attack by the Vandals in the middle of the fifth century. This attack determined the beginning of a sharp decline of Olbia, and gives a clear picture of one of the turning points of the Mediterranean cultural evolution: the end of the Roman Empire. Considering −1.4 m as the average altitude of the shipwrecks on the silty bottom of the Olbia Harbour and comparing this value with the predicted sea level curve from the Lambeck model calculated for northern Sardinia (−1 m ca. 1500 cal BP), it appears clear that the ships were at the margin of the harbour in water depth of less than 0.5 m. This confirms: a) the previous archaeological interpretation; and b) that the northern Sardinian coast was stable during the last millennia. Due to the tectonic stability of the coastal area, the evolution of the shoreline from the Bronze age (4 ka cal BP) up to 21.5 ka cal BP (LGM, last glacial maximum) is reconstructed.

A continuously cored borehole was used to analyse Holocene relative sea-level changes in the Pescara coastal plain, located along the central Adriatic coast (Abruzzo, central Italy). The core was retrieved from the uppermost 19 m deposits, 600 m from the present-day shoreline. Sedimentological and palaeontological analyses identified a transition from fluvial strata to brackish-water, lagoon and foreshore deposits. Five biological sea-level markers were sampled and their ages, constrained by AMS 14 C dating, span between 2.39 and 7.68 ka cal BP. Heights (m above mean sea level) of the collected samples have been corrected, taking into consideration uncertainties of the vertical positioning with respect to palaeo-sea level. Vertical tectonic displacements have been evaluated through the comparison of relative sea-level data with the site-specific predicted Holocene sea-level curve. Correlations with available morphotectonic and stratigraphic data also were used. The results suggest negligible rates of vertical tectonic displacement during the Holocene, at least along a coastal strip of 40 km located between Pescara and Sangro river mouths (Abruzzo).

New data of sea level changes for the Mediterranean region along the coasts of northern Africa are presented. Data are inferred from archaeological sites of Punic-Roman age located along the coast of Tunisia, between Tunis and Jerba island and along the western coast of Libya, between Sabratha and Leptis Magna. Data are based on precise measures of presently submerged archaeological markers that are good indicators of past sea-level elevation. Nineteen selected archaeological sites were studied in Tunisia and four in Libya, all aged between ∼2.0 and ∼1.5 ka BP. The functional elevations of significant archaeological markers were measured with respect to the sea level at the time of measurements, applying corrections for tide and atmospheric pressure values. The functional elevations of specific architectural parts of the sites were interpreted, related to sea level at the time of their construction providing data on the relative changes between land and sea. Observations were compared against sea level change predictions derived from the glacio-hydro-isostatic model associated with the Last Glacial cycle. The results indicate that local relative sea level change along the coast of Tunisia and Libya, has increased 0.2 ÷ 0.5 m since the last ∼2 ka. Besides minor vertical tectonic movements of the land, the observed changes are produced by eustatic and glacio-hydro-isostatic variations acting in the Mediterranean basin since the end of the last glacial maximum.

The penultimate interglacial period was punctuated by three sea-level highstands. Uranium–thorium ages obtained from speleothems in Italian caves show that the relationship between the timing of the peaks in sea level and Northern Hemisphere insolation is dependent on the previous extent of continental ice sheets. Earth’s climate has oscillated between short-lived interglacial and extended glacial periods for the past million years. Before the last interglacial, absolutely dated markers of sea level become increasingly rare; hence, our knowledge of sea-level change driven by the waxing and waning of continental ice sheets before that time is largely based on proxy records from deep-sea cores1,2,3 that lack direct age control. Here we present precise U–Th ages for a remarkable collection of submerged speleothems4,5 from Italy, which record three sea-level highstands during the penultimate interglacial period, Marine Isotope Stage 7, from 245,000 to 190,000 years ago. We find that sea level rose above −18 m (relative to modern sea level) several thousand years before maximum Northern Hemisphere insolation during the first and third highstands. In contrast, the second highstand, Marine Isotope Stage 7.3, is essentially synchronous with the insolation maximum, and sea level during this highstand only peaked at about −18 m, even though the concurrent insolation forcing was the strongest of the three highstands. We attribute the different phasing and amplitude of the Marine Isotope Stage 7.3 highstand to the extensive continental glaciation that preceded it. This finding highlights the significance of cryosphere response time to the climate system.

Precise measurements of submerged archaeological markers in the Siracusa coast (Southeastern Sicily, Italy) provide new data on relative sea-level change during the late Holocene. Four submerged archaeological sites have been studied and investigated through direct observations. Two of them are Greek archaic in age (2.5–2.7 ka) and are now 0.98–1.48 m below sea level; the other two developed during the Bronze age (3.2–3.8 ka) and are now 1.03–1.97 m below sea level. These archaeological data have been integrated with information derived from a submerged speleothem collected in a cave located along the Siracusa coast at − 20 m depth. The positions of the archaeological markers have been measured with respect to present sea level, corrected for tide and pressure at the time of surveys. These data were compared with predicted sea-level rise curves for the Holocene using a glacio-hydro-isostatic model. The comparison with the curve for the southeastern Sicily coast yields a tectonic component of relative sea-level change related to regional uplift. Uplift rates between 0.3 and 0.8 mm/yr have been estimated.

We present the first detailed survey of tidal notches in the central Mediterranean area, in particular along the coastline of Gozo and Comino (Malta). The Maltese Islands represent one of the few sites in the Sicily Channel which exhibits coastal carbonate rocks. Marine notches on the islands of Gozo and Comino were surveyed by means of a seven day continuous snorkeling survey around the entire perimeter of the two islands. We surveyed the occurrence, lack and typology of marine notches and we correlated them with late Holocene sea level changes. Sea temperature (T) and electrical conductivity (EC) were collected along the route in order to locate the submarine springs and to relate them to the surveyed notches.A well-carved continuous roof notch was discovered along most of the plunging cliffs. It is well-carved out, in particular along the northern and western coast of Gozo. It develops from about 0.2 m above the mean sea level down and it can be up to 1.5–2 m deep. On the contrary, tidal notches are localised only in 8 sites. In 2 sites, Vermetid trottoirs develop at low tide level. In addition, at about −7 m to −10 m m.s.l., a 2–5 m wide marine terrace develops along extensive tracts of plunging cliffs, always in correspondence with the roof notches. This submerged terrace seem to be the result of the late Holocene slowdown of the sea level rise, which started to smooth the terrace and to carve out the submerged part of the roof notch, thanks to the exposed location of the islands and the favourable lithology.Through the collection of hydrological data, the presence of 21 submarine springs were detected. They occur mainly in the south-western coast of Gozo and on eastern coast of Comino. Anyway, marine notches seem not to be related to the freshwater outflow, such as those in the Adriatic Sea, because the studied islands are very exposed. As a consequence, along the Maltese islands bioerosion seems to be the most effective process in notch development., peer-reviewed

Instrumental records indicate that ocean volumes during the 20th century have increased so as to raise eustatic sea level by f1–2 mm/year and the few available records suggest that this is higher than for the previous century. Geological data indicate that ocean volumes have increased since the main phase of deglaciation about 7000 years ago but whether this continued into the recent past remains unclear. Yet, this is important for establishing whether the recent rise is associated with global warming or is part of a longer duration non-anthropogenic signal. Here, we present results for sea-level change in the central Mediterranean basin for the Roman Period using new archaeological evidence. These data provide a precise measure of local sea level of 1.35F0.07 m at 2000 years ago. Part of this change is the result of ongoing glacio-hydro isostatic adjustment of the crust subsequent to the last deglaciation. When corrected for this, using geologically constrained model predictions, the change in eustatic sea level since the Roman Period is 0.13F0.09 m. A comparison with tide-gauge records from nearby locations and with geologically constrained model predictions of the glacio-isostatic contributions establishes that the onset of modern sea-level rise occurred in recent time at f100F53 years before present. D 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Several Quaternary sea-level changes are recorded by speleothems in the Argentarola Cave (Italy), which is currently flooded by the Mediterranean Sea. Speleothems with a sequence of continental layers and marine biogenic overgrowths (serpulid colonies), all presently covered by living serpulids, were sampled at water depths between −3.5 and −21.7 m. The composite sequence contains five marine and four continental layers, formed over the last 215 ka. The Mediterranean Sea flooded the cave during two short periods of MIS 7 (7.3 and 7.1), as well as during an episode at the end of MIS 6 and during MIS 5, when a thick biogenic overgrowth grew during MIS 5.2 and 5.4. Thin continental layers also formed during the LGM. This final speleothem layer was interrupted during the Holocene sea-level rise, but at different times in each speleothem. A Holocene sea-level curve has been constructed from this same layer. A thin marine layer, found only in the deeper stalagmites at −21.5 and −21.7 m, is tentatively related to the short marine transgression of Termination II, after 145 ka BP and before MIS 5.5. The island of Argentarola lies in a tectonically stable area and our data generally agree with the results obtained by other authors on speleothems from the Bahamas. The data presented here are compared with the SPECMAP curve and other recently published sea-level curves.

Relative sea-level change along the Italian coast and adjacent seas—the combined result of eustasy, glacio-hydro-isostasy and vertical tectonic motion—exhibits considerable spatial and temporal variability throughout the Holocene. The tectonic contribution can be evaluated from the elevation of MIS 5.5 shoreline-markers that are well developed in many localities and the eustatic and isostatic contributions can be predicted from models of ice sheets and earth rheology. Discrepancies between observed Holocene sea levels and model predicted values provide the information for refiningthe model parameters, includingthe tectonic rates of vertical movement. Recent and new Holocene and MIS 5.5 information from 30 sites in Italy has been evaluated and compared with model results to calibrate the predictive model. The resultingparameters for the earth rheology and for the eustatic (ice-volume equivalent) sea-level function are consistent with results from regions outside of the Mediterranean and reflect global values. Using the calibrated model parameters the relative sea-level change due to eustasy and the concomitant isostasy is predicted across the central Mediterranean region. Holocene tectonic rates of vertical motion are also given for the Italian coastal zone. At most sites where the MIS 5.5 shoreline occurs above or below its ‘tectonically stable’ position, the inferred rates of vertical crustal displacements are consistent with the assumption that average rates for the past B125,000 years are comparable to the average Holocene rates, but at some locations in eastern Sicily and southern Calabria the Holocene rates exceed the longer term average rates. r 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

The presence of Vermetid reefs in temperate waters, their diffusion in the Mediterranean Sea, and the possibility of performing 14 C ages allowed the use of Vermetids as an indicator of sea level changes. We present new data on sea climate trend fluctuations that could be interpreted as Sea Surface Temperature (SST) variations, recorded on Vermetid (Dendropoma petraeum) reefs, by means of isotopic analysis. The isotopic records show positive values of the d 18 O relative to present-day values in the period between 1600 and 1850 AD; this deviation occurs in association with the climatic cooling event known as Little Ice Age (LIA). Subsequently, we can observe the warming trend that characterized the last century. These preliminary results indicate that Vermetids could be considered a new SST proxy-data for the Mediterranean Sea and, more generally, for temperate areas. D 2003 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

The northeast coast of Sicily shows emergent marine features that have been uplifting during the Holocene along the footwalls of two major regional fault systems, the Malta Escarpment and Messina fault system. Previously, uplift rates were interpreted as up to about 1.8 mm/mm a−1. New dates on shelly remains, collected close to sea-level, from the Taormina area north of Mount Etna, and amended sea-level curves, are used to show that uplift over the past 6000 years has been proceeding at a slower rate of about 1.4 mm a−1. However, over a longer time period, from the Tyrrhenian Oxygen Isotope Stage 5.5 (about 125 ka) to the present day, the uplift rate has been yet slower, at about 1 mm a−1. Northeast Sicily lies in a complex plate boundary region whereas, in contrast, the rest of Sicily appears to have been stable throughout the later Quaternary. Further comparisons show that the French Mediterranean coast [Lambeck, Bard (2000) Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 175, 202–222] is a region of crustal stability, where movement is dominated by subsidence of the outer portion of the proglacial forebulge of the last glaciation. There the coastline has been progressively submerged during the Holocene, and sea level has never been higher than at present. Northeastern Sicily uplift is therefore more likely controlled by plate processes that mask most of the effects of glacio-hydro-isostatic adjustment.

We studied the last 2 ka sea level change along the Italian, Slovenian and Croatian coastlines (Eastern Adriatic Sea) using archaeological and geomorphological markers surveyed between Duino and S. Simonov, along the eastern part of the Gulf of Trieste. Moreover, we present 14C AMS analyses provided on lagoonal fossil shells compraised between 9.7 an 4.6 ka BP at altitude between -1.3 and -4.5 m in Istria. Many Authors (Pirazzoli, 1980; Fouache et al., 2000; Benac et al., 2004) published geomorphological, archaeological and sismotectonic research works between the coast of Duino (Trieste) up to the central coast of Croatia (Zadar). Along the limestone coast, the Authors revealed a quasi-continous occurence of a submerged marine notch at a depth between –0.5 m and –1.0 m. In addition, Roman age archaeological markers were measured at depths lower than –0.5 m and often lower than –1.0 m. Antonioli et al. (2004) provided geomorphogical observations on marine notches in the Gulf of Trieste between –0.7 m and –2.55 m. Since the northern part of the Gulf is dominated by highly conservative limestone rocks, we provide new detailed geomorphological measurements, surveying a continous marine notch in 11 different sites. In this area there are no archaeological remains related to sea level changes. On the contrary, since the southern coast between Stramare (Italy) and Izola (Slovenija) is dominated by Flysch, there are no notches but 5 submerged archaeological sites. The altitude of the marine notch vary between –0.65 m on the Miramare olistoliths and –0.9 m in Canovella de’ Zoppoli. The depth of the notch increases in direction of Duino, from –1.3 m close to the Sistiana Harbour to –2.55 m below the castle of Duino. This situation highlights a clear SE-NW tilting versus in the Gulf of Trieste. Braitenberg et al. (2005), on the basis of tidal gauge data (over 110 years) and the movement of the last 30 years of the Grotta Gigante pendulum, hypothesized that NW movements could still be active. In the southern part of the Gulf, the mean values of the tide and pressure-corrected archaeological measurements (all provided by harbour stones) indicate a depth of -1.6±0.5 m for the 2 ky Bp sea level (Roman age – I sec. A.D., dated with an amphora at the base of the stones), assuming the top of the wall of the harbours at an altitude of about -0.9 m.

The morphology and stratigraphic features of a well-preserved drowned barrier system, located on the western coast of Sardinia (Mediterranean Sea), are presented here. The barriers were mapped using a multibeam echosounder. The Digital Terrain Model of the seabed revealed five sub-parallel barriers in a depth range of 18-37. m, with a distance of ~. 300. m between each single barrier. Direct inspection by scuba diving, revealed that the barriers consist of beachrocks, topped by seagrass meadows growing on a biogenic hardground. The inner-most barrier is limited landward by a steep cliff, 10. m high, bordering the back-barrier area. About 200. km of seismic lines were collected along the barrier system using a 0.4-1.0. kJ sparker source and a 3.5. kHz Chirp Subbottom profiler. The seismic data, calibrated with vibrocores, allowed us to recognize the subaerial topographic surface of the last glacial maximum as well as several seismic units interpreted as the Pliocene marine sediments, the pre-Holocene deposits and the Holocene barrier-lagoon complex composed of shoreface, barrier, lagoonal/deltaic and beach deposits.Despite the relatively high seabed gradient (0.3°-0.4°) and the relatively low rate of sea-level rise (10-15mmy-1), the barriers were well preserved due to the early diagenetic processes which led to a rapid cementation with the formation of beachrocks, and the subsequent overstepping with the rise of the sea level. The development of the overstepping barrier system is strictly related to the antecedent subaerial topography which is, in turn, related to the tectonic setting of the area. The Pliocene seismic unit was lowered by a direct fault at the entrance of the gulf forming a depression filled by sediments. The overstepping barrier system developed following the increase of the seabed gradient and was limited landward by the above-mentioned depression which increased the accommodation space. Following the sea-level rise and the barrier formation, this depression was filled by lagoonal sediments, washover fans and sediments coming from the rivers.The age model of barrier evolution, based on previous sea-level-rise curves during the Holocene, supported by radiocarbon data, highlighted that the whole system evolved over a time period of 1. ka; while the time elapsed from this formation to the drowning of single barriers was estimated to be in the order of magnitude of centuries.Scenarios of short-term evolution of modern barrier-lagoon systems of the adjacent coastal sector, under conditions of accelerated sea-level rise, according to Church et al. (2013) (2013 IPCC report) and Rahmstorf (2007) projections, were elaborated. The study of this ancient analogue suggests that the processes of adaptation of coastal systems to the rising sea level would require times evaluable from centuries to millennia. © 2015 Elsevier B.V.

Accurate constraints are presented for the absolute age, duration and sea-level for the highstand corresponding to marine isotope stage (MIS) 7.1. Our work is based on a stalagmite collected in a currently submerged cave from Italy (Argentarola Cave). Flooding of this coastal cave is clearly marked within the stalagmite by a thick marine overgrowth of serpulid worms. Precise uranium^thorium (U^Th) ages measured by thermal ionization mass spectrometry suggest that the stalagmite growth varied in phase with climate during MIS 7.2 and MIS 6, the penultimate glacial period. In addition, the period of marine transgression is bracketed between 202 and 190 kyr BP, defining a MIS 7.1 duration of 11 ˛ 2 kyr. Comparison with previous studies provides a new constraint on the sea-level during MIS 7.1 that has approximately remained between 318 and 39 m relative to present sea-level. The timing of the MIS 7.1 highstand is in full agreement with the SPECMAP chronology which contrasts with the growing body of evidence showing a significant phase difference for MIS 5.5. A tempting conclusion is that second order sea-level highstands such as MIS 7.1 may be purely driven by astronomical changes, in contrast with major terminations such as Termination II. Atmospheric CO2 levels may partly explain this contrast since the two sea-level transitions, (MIS 7.2^7.1 and MIS 6^5.5) are characterized by very different CO2 rises (20 vs 100 ppm). fl 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.

Aim of the present study, which is part of the E.U. Commission SELF II Research Project, is the reconstruction of the Pleistocene and Holocene tectonic trends in a Mediterranean coastal area. The study is focused on the upper Pleistocene to Holocene tectonic history of NW Sicily. The emerged and submerged coastal zone of a selected area (St. Vito lo Capo, NW Sicily) was studied, by using jointly different sectoral approaches and carrying out geological and geomorphological surveys. The studied area shows morphological evidence of a succession of marine terraces, which is uncommon for the Mediterranean region. These evidences of the coastal evolution, which are currently located both above and below the present sea level, were ascribed to the Middle and Upper Pleistocene, by using morphological (notches and terraces) and stratigraphical criteria, supported by radiometric dating. A detailed study of the longitudinal profiles of the most recently emerged marine terraces, ascribed to isotope stage 5e, revealed the presence of six sectors characterized by different rates of crustal uplift during the post Tyrrhenian age. The rates of uplift calculated for each of these post-Tyrrhenian age sectors allowed to recognize that the error related to tectonic uplift, in the reconstruction of eustatic fluctuations relative to the last 10 kyr from submerged speleothems and vermetid reefs, is negligible.

Fast uplift or subsidence rates, related to intense tectonic-seismic activity, affect the Mediterranean coasts, especially in its eastern sector and Calabria, whereas other areas appear relatively stable. Along the southern Italian coast, the most widely distributed and therefore useful reference datum is the paleo sea level related to isotopic substage 5e (125 ky). In the present study, this marker (inner edge of marine terrace or notch) has been safely identified along three sectors of the Italian coast generally considered tectonically stable: eastern Sardinia, southern Latium and northwestern Sicily. In Latium the top of the Eutyrrhenian transgression was found to vary between −5 and +9.8 m a.s.l. along a 100 km long coast. A well carved Eutyrrhenian notch can be followed for ca. 35 km along the coast of Orosei in Sardinia, gradually varying in elevation between 7.7 and 10.5 m a.s.l., thus indicating a regional tilt. In Sicily, the inner edges of the Eutyrrhenian terrace and marine notches are at elevations between 8 and 13.9 m a.s.l. In all these areas the stage 5e marker has shown a significant local mobility demonstrating its utility for detailing either areal or linear tectonic activity during the last 125 ky along the Tyrrhenian Sea coasts.

The Mediterranean basin is an important area of the Earth for studying the interplay between geodynamic processes and landscape evolution affected by tectonic, glacio-hydro-iso- static and eustatic factors. We focus on determining vertical deformations and relative sea-level change of the coastal zone utilizing geological, archaeological, historical and instrumental data, and modelling. For deformation determinations on recent decadal to centennial time scales, seis- mic strain analysis based on about 6000 focal mechanisms, surface deformation analysis based on some 850 continuous GPS stations, and 57 tide gauge records were used. Utilizing data from tectonically stable areas, reference surfaces were established to separate tectonic and climate (eustatic) signals throughout the basin for the last 20 000 years. Predominant Holocene subsidence (west coast of Italy, northern Adriatic sea, most of Greece and Turkey are areas at risk of flooding owing to relative sea-level rise), uplift (local areas in southwestern Italy and southern Greece) or stability (northwestern and central western Mediterranean and Levant area) were determined. Superimposed on the long trends, the coasts are also impacted by sudden extreme events such as recurring large storms and numerous, but unpredictable tsunamis caused by the high seismicity of parts of the basins

A multidisciplinary approach has been applied to study sea level changes along the coast of Malta using data collected from underwater archaeological remains. The elevation of archaeological markers have been compared with predicted sea level curves providing new bodies of evidence that outline the vertical tectonic behaviour of this region, allowing estimation of the relative sea level changes that occurred in this area of the Mediterranean since the Bronze Age. During the Roman Age, sea level was at −1.36 ± 0.1 m, while in the Midde Age it was at −0.56 ± 0.2 m, in agreement with previous estimations for the Mediterranean region. Data indicate that Malta was tectonically stable during the studied period. The occurrence of the present-day notch along the coasts of the island indicates recent vertical stability of the area. The lack of MIS 5.5 deposits all over the island could simply be due to high rates of erosion, as its coasts are highly exposed to storm waves, rather than tectonic movements. However, even very slight vertical movements could completely remove field evidence. The relative stability of the Maltese Islands allowed a first attempt to provide a palaeoenvironmental reconstruction of its coasts at different time windows since the Last Glacial Maximum. The results have been used to infer time and mode of mammal dispersal to the island during the Pleistocene., peer-reviewed

During the last decade, several papers have been published to estimate the relative sea level change from coastal archaeological indicators of the last 3.4 ka BP in many locations of the Italian coasts and the Mediterranean Sea. The use of the archaeological information has been poorly focused for the Middle Ages, due to the few available coastal installations for this period, thus not allowing precise sea level estimation for the last 1000 years, to complement the instrumental data available for the last 100-120 years. This study discusses an archaeological marker of the Middle Ages, used to reconstruct the story of the sea level changes in the last 1000 years, at the St. Nicholas Basilica, built in 1087 AD along the coast of Bari (Apulia, southern Italy). The elevations of the ancient floor levels of the crypt underwent repeated flooding due to a continuous rising of the groundwater table, which required restoration and uplifting of pavements between 1087 and 1956 to keep them dry. The palaeo-sea levels have been obtained by measuring the position of the groundwater table, the elevation of which is mainly driven by sea level since the time of the construction of the Basilica.The elevation of the archaeological markers and the water table were compared against the latest predicted sea level curve for the Holocene along the coast of Bari. As this coastal area is unaffected by significant vertical tectonic motion over the last 125 ky, the data detail the timing of the relative sea level rise since the Middle Ages and can be used to improve the predicted sea level curve for this region for the last 1000 years. © 2012 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA.

Roman age fishponds along the Istrian and Dalmatian coast were studied, with the aim of using the data as sea level markers. Although the Adriatic fishponds do not display the architectural features (crepidines, channels, etc.) that can be observed in the Tyrrhenian ones and serve as precise sea level markers, their structural elements can be used to define the sea level rise. Fishponds at S. Bartolomeo and Fisine in Slovenja, Kupanja, near Parenzo, and at Katoro, near Umago, in Croatia, were studied and measured. The pool investigated in the island of Svršata Vela, on the Kornati Islands, represents a different feature. Located on the northwest coast of the island, adjacent to the southern part of the gulf, it is a single square pool, with dimensions clearly less than the Istrian fishtanks, similar to those associated with the Tyrrhenian villae maritimae. These data (the altitude of archaeological markers below sea level) were corrected for tide and pressure and compared with predictions derived from the SELEN glacio-hydro-isostatic model. Comparation with the predicted sea level allows calculation of tectonic rates that range between -0.63 and -0.89 mm/year since Roman times.

New data are presented for late Holocene relative sea level change for one of the older harbors of the Mediterranean Sea. Data are based on measurements of submerged archaeological remains, indicating past sea level and shoreline positions. The study has been carried out at Pyrgi (Santa Severa), an important Etruscan archaeological site located in central Italy, 52 km north of Rome. Underwater geomorphological features (a large shore platform) and archaeological remains (a Roman dock, two fishtanks, and wells of Etruscan age) connected to relative sea level and to the shoreline during the last 7 millennia have been measured and compared with current glacio-hydro-isostatic theoretical models in order to reconstruct the long-term shoreline evolution and to evaluate coastal tectonic vertical movements, so far derived for this area only from Last Interglacial (125 ka) sea level markers.

This paper provides new data and interpretations on the relative sea level change occurred at Pianosa island (Italy) since the last ∼125 ka, where the recent relative sea level changes have not yet been adequately constrained, based on geomorphological and archaeological research of tectonic movements. The MIS 5.5 deposits are characterized by a 2 m thick sandstone, cropping out at a maximum altitude of 4 m a.s.l. containing Strombus bubonius , and are associated with an abrasion platforms carved by lithodome holes. These deposits, considered one of the best long term sea level markers, establish that Pianosa was a stable area since 125 ka. Archaeological remains provide evidence of sea level change for the last ∼8 ka. Particularly useful are some fishtanks and a quarry cut around 2 ka BP (Roman age). The measurements, compared with predicted sea level curves, have established that Pianosa has remained stable during the last millennia. Based on this assumption, palaeomorphology variations since Palaeolithic age for this portion of the Tuscan Archipelago are reconstructed.

A multidisciplinary approach has been used to evaluate Late Holocene relative sea level change along the eastern coast of the Gulf of Trieste. Published data, together with new 14 C dating, have been compared with predicted curves in order to evaluate the tectonic behaviour of the studied area. Observations derived from precise geomorphological, archaeological and sedimentological measurements dated from 10 ka cal., sampled at elevations ranging between −25 and +0.10 m. Tectonic rates range from 1.01 mm/y (Gulf of Trieste) and –1.99 mm/y (Villaggio del Pescatore), but are probably higher in the northwestern sector, where the elevation of post-Roman geomorphological markers is lower. A detailed surveying of notches, beachrocks, submerged shore platforms and the geological setting of the coastal area highlight the variability of tectonic subsidence, indicated by geophysical data collected in the central part of the gulf. Analyzed data indicate active tectonism. The tectonic setting of the northernmost sector is affected by the presence of strike-slip faults which cause differential downdrop of the shoreline, as suggested by significant increases of notch depths, ranging between −1.0 m and −2.7 m.

Detailed mapping of Holocene shorelines outcropping a few meters above the present sea-level at Capo Milazzo, the main headland of NE Sicily, supplied evidence of the interplay between abrupt and steady uplift. Field analysis revealed two shorelines at distinct elevations, which were characterized through position and radiometric dating of geomorphologic and biological sea-level markers. The upper shoreline is represented by a notch, marine deposits and barnacle rims. The notch is found at average elevation of ∼2.1 m above mean sea level (a.m.s.l.) and is filled by a marine deposit containing shells dated between 6.2 and 3.9 ka BP. Locally, the deposit includes pottery of Roman age (∼2 ka BP). An intertidal balanid rim associated with the upper shoreline yielded ages between 3.8 and 1.6 ka BP. The lower shoreline involves a notch at ∼0.8 m a.m.s.l., locally carved in the older Holocene deposit, and a likely coeval, subjacent abrasion platform at 0.5-0.6 m a.m.s.l. Remains of a balanid rim in this lower notch were dated at ∼1.4 ka BP. Morphological and chronostratigraphical relations indicate that uplift of the upper shoreline occurred abruptly. Sudden displacement of 1.3-1.5 m occurred during a co-seismic event. Age and elevation relationships document that the upper shoreline was active between 6.2 and 1.6 ka, and thus co-seismic uplift must have occurred between 1.6 and ∼1.4 ka, the bracketed ages of cessation and inception of the upper and lower shorelines, respectively. Using similar reasoning, a younger (∼0.8-0.9 m) co-seismic uplift occurred probably shortly after 1.4 ka. These uplifts supplemented a regional, background uplift that operated steadily during the lifespan of the two shorelines. Precise compensation for the glacio-hydro-isostatic sea-level change indicated that this uplift took place at ∼0.65 mm/y. Thus, cumulative uplift at the studied sites occurred at 1.2-1.5 (locally up to 2.1) mm/y, in close agreement with nearby coastal sites in Sicily and southern Calabria. Analysis suggests the occurrence of a seismogenic source in the Capo Milazzo area, possibly related to transpressive structures recently mapped offshore. The seismogenic potential of this sector of Sicily needs to be re-evaluated. © 2010 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA.