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Previous model simulations indicate that in stratiform precipitation, the precipitation rate can increase by 7% in the melting layer through direct condensation onto melting snow and the resultant cooled rain. In the present study, a model simulation of stratiform precipitation in a wide cold frontal rainband indicates that the precipitation rate can also increase by 5% in the melting layer through accretion, by melting snow and rain, of additional cloud water produced by the latent cooling of the ambient air associated with melting snow. The contribution of the combined processes, and therefore the additional precipitation gained through the latent cooling of melting snow within the melting layer, may contribute as much as 10% to the precipitation rate in stratiform precipitation.

Particle size spectra collected by the University of Washington's Convair-580 research aircraft at a variety of altitudes and temperatures in winter frontal and orographic precipitation systems during the Improvement of Microphysical Parameterization through Observational Verification Experiment (IMPROVE) are analyzed in this study. The particle size spectra generally appeared to conform to an exponential size distribution, with well-correlated linear fits between the log of the number concentration and particle diameter. When the particle size spectra were grouped according to the habit composition as determined from airborne imagery, significantly improved correlations between the size spectrum parameters and temperature were obtained. This result could potentially be exploited for specifying the size distribution in a single-moment bulk microphysical scheme, if particle habit is predicted by the scheme. Analyses of 'spectral trajectories' suggest that the rime-splintering process was likely responsible for the presence of needle and column habit types and the positive shift in both [N.sub.0s] and [[lambda].sub.s] at temperatures warmer than -10[degrees]C.

A mesoscale model simulation of a wide cold-frontal rainband observed in the Pacific Northwest during the Improvement of Microphysical Parameterization through Observational Verification Experiment (IMPROVE-1) field study was used to test the sensitivity of the model-produced precipitation to varied representations of snow particles in a bulk microphysical scheme. Tests of sensitivity to snow habit type, by using empirical relationships for mass and velocity versus diameter, demonstrated the defectiveness of the conventional assumption of snow particles as constant density spheres. More realistic empirical massdiameter relationships result in increased numbers of particles and shift the snow size distribution toward larger particles, leading to increased depositional growth of snow and decreased cloud water production. Use of realistic empirical mass-diameter relationships generally increased precipitation at the surface as the rainband interacted with the orography, with more limited increases occurring offshore. Changes in both the mass-diameter and velocity-diameter relationships significantly redistributed precipitation either windward or leeward when the rainband interacted with the mountain barrier. A method of predicting snow particle habit in a bulk microphysical scheme, and using predicted habit to dynamically determine snow properties in the scheme, was developed and tested. The scheme performed well at predicting the habits present (or not present) in aircraft observations of the rainband. Use of the scheme resulted in little change in the precipitation rate at the ground for the rainband offshore, but significantly increased precipitation when the rainband interacted with the windward slope of the Olympic Mountains. The study demonstrates the promise of the habit prediction approach to treating snow in bulk microphysical schemes.

Recent studies that have classified ice particles from airborne imaging probe data have concluded that the vast majority of ice particles in stratiform precipitation systems are of an 'irregular shape.' This conclusion stands in contrast to the findings from microscope observations of snow particles at the ground during the Improvement of Microphysical Parameterization through Observational Verification Experiment from November to December 2001 in the Oregon Cascade Mountains (IMPROVE-2), which show that most snow crystals (either single crystals or the component crystals of snow aggregates) are readily identified as regular types within established crystal classification systems. This apparent contradiction is rectified by examining the definition of the term irregular as applied to ice particles and by considering limitations of different methods for observing ice particles. It is concluded that the finding of the airborne probe-based studies is a consequence of both limitations of the observing technology and an overly broad definition of irregular shape that is not consistent with the more restrictive definition established in well-known snow crystal classification schemes. When detailed microscope analysis of snow crystals is performed at the ground, and all regular types are included in the classification, the vast majority of snow crystals are of an identifiable regular type, rather than an irregular type. The classification of the vast majority of particles as irregular implies that there is little hope to describe the important properties of these particles (such as their scattering properties, fall speeds, and temperature and humidity conditions in which they grew), when in fact. many of these particles are of known types with known properties. Instead of using the term irregular, classification studies should use a term that focuses on the limitation of the observation method as being the defining characteristic of the category, such as 'unidentified' or 'undetermined.'

On 13-14 December 2001 a vigorous cyclonic storm passed over the Pacific Northwest, producing heavy orographic precipitation over the Cascade Mountains. This storm was one of several studied during the second field phase of the Improvement of Microphysical Parameterization through Observational Verification Experiment (IMPROVE). A wide variety of in situ and remotely sensed measurements were obtained as this storm passed over the Oregon Cascades. These measurements provided a comprehensive dataset of meteorological state parameters (temperature, pressure, humidity, winds, and vertical air velocity), polarization Doppler radar measurements, and cloud microphysical parameters (cloud liquid water, particle concentrations, size spectra, and imagery). The 13-14 December case was characterized by the passage of a tipped-forward lower-tropospheric front that extended upward to a preceding vigorous upper cold-frontal rainband, which produced clouds up to ~8-9 km. An important difference between this storm and those studied previously over the Washington Cascades was that the prefrontal low-level airflow over the Oregon Cascades was characterized by strong westerly (as opposed to weak easterly) cross-barrier flow. Consequently, as the upper cold-frontal band passed over the Oregon Cascades there was both strong ice particle production aloft and significant production of liquid water at lower levels in the orographic lifting zone. Airborne in situ measurements, ground-based microwave radiometer measurements, and observations of snow crystals showed the simultaneous presence of high ice crystal concentrations and relatively large values of cloud liquid water aloft, and heavily rimed particles reaching the ground. Analyses indicate that a synergistic interaction occurred between the frontal and orographic precipitation.

This paper compares airborne in situ observations of cloud microphysical parameters with the fifth-generation Pennsylvania State University-National Center for Atmospheric Research (PSU-NCAR) Mesoscale Model (MM5) simulations, using the Reisner-2 bulk microphysical parameterization, for a heavy precipitation event over the Oregon Cascades on 13-14 December 2001. The MM5 correctly replicated the extent of the snow field and the growth of snow particles by vapor deposition measured along aircraft flight tracks between altitudes of 4.9 and 6 km, but overpredicted the mass concentrations of snow. The model produced a broader number distribution of snow particles than observed, overpredicting the number of moderate-to-large-sized snow particles and underpredicting the number of small particles observed along the aircraft flight track. Over the mountain crest, the model overpredicted depositional growth of snow and mass concentrations of snow, but underpredicted the amount of cloud liquid water and conversion of snow to graupel. The misclassification of graupel as snow and excessive amounts of snow resulted in the model overpredicting precipitation on the lee slopes and in localized areas along the foothills of the Cascades. The model overpredicted cloud liquid water over the lower windward slopes and foothills, where accretion of cloud liquid water by rain was the primary precipitation-producing mechanism.

On 1-2 February 2001, a strong cyclonic storm system developed over the northeastern Pacific Ocean and moved onto the Washington coast. This storm was one of several that were documented during the first field phase of the Improvement of Microphysical Parameterization through Observational Verification Experiment (IMPROVE). In the 1-2 February case, soundings and wind profiler measurements showed that a wide cold-frontal rainband was coincident with the leading edge of an upper-level cold front in a classical warm occlusion. Ground-based radar observations revealed the presence of subbands within the wide cold-frontal rainband and two layers of precipitation generating cells within this rainband: one at 5-7 km MSL and the other at 9-10 km MSL. The lower layer of generating cells produced fallstreaks that were traced from the cells down to the radar bright band at 2 km MSL. Observations suggest a connection between the subbands and the lower layer of generating cells. A research aircraft, equipped for cloud microphysical measurements, passed through at least two generating cells in the 5-7-km region. These cells were in their formative stage, with elevated liquid water contents and low ice particle concentrations. The microphysical structure of the wide cold-frontal rainband was elucidated by particle imagery from a Cloud Particle Imaging (CPI) probe aboard the research aircraft. These images provide detailed information on crystal habits and degrees of riming throughout the depth of the rainband. The crystal habits are used to deduce the temperature and saturation conditions under which the crystals grew and, along with in situ measurements of particle size spectra, they are used to estimate particle terminal fall velocities, precipitation rates, radar reflectivities, and vertical air motions. The radar reflectivity derived in this way generally compared well with direct measurement. Both the derived and directly measured parameters are used to determine the primary particle growth processes in the wide cold-frontal rainband. Above the melting layer, vapor deposition was the dominant growth process in the rainband; growth of ice particles by riming was small. Significant aggregation of ice particles occurred in the region just above the melting layer. A doubling in the air-relative vertical precipitation mass flux occurred between the region where sheath ice crystals formed (-3[degrees] [less than or equal to] T [less than or equal to] -8[degrees]C) and the surface. Substantial amounts of liquid water were found within the melting layer where growth occurred by the accretion of cloud droplets and also by condensation. Growth by the collision and coalescence of raindrops was not significant below the melting layer.

Analysis of observations and the fifth-generation Pennsylvania State University-National Center for Atmospheric Research (PSU-NCAR) Mesoscale Model (MM5) are used to study the development of a forward-tilted cold front off the coast of Washington State. The vertical velocity associated with the cold front produced a wide cold-frontal rainband. In the early stage of development the midtropospheric baroclinic zone (or upper cold front) moved forward with time over the warm sector to produce a structure similar to a split front. The movement of the upper cold front was due to horizontal transport and frontogenetical propagation. The frontogenetical propagation was produced by a combination of tilting and diabatic frontogenesis, which resulted in a negative/positive couplet of frontogenesis straddling the baroclinic zone. The lower-tropospheric cold front eventually caught up with the warm front to form a classical warm occlusion. In the initial occluding process the converging frontal zones tilted into a warm-type occlusion configuration due to the presence of a background vertical shear of the horizontal wind component perpendicular to the occluded front. Consequently, as the storm moved over the observing network, the occluded front had the structure of a warm occlusion (tilted forward) in the lower levels. Above the occlusion, the cold front was also tilted forward because it retained its split-front-like structure. Thus, the development of the split front and the warm occlusion were separate processes that occurred in sequence. Although the MM5 captured the basic forward tilt with time of the cold front, some key aspects of the midtropospheric frontal structure were not well simulated. Because diabatic heating was an important contributor to the maintenance and movement of the upper cold front, it is hypothesized that discrepancies in diabatic heating associated with deficiencies in the model's explicit microphysical scheme may be responsible for deficiencies in reproducing the structure of the upper cold front.

Linear and nonlinear simulations of idealized baroclinic waves interacting with topography are examined in the context of quasigeostrophy. The purpose is to provide a simple conceptual interpretation of the transients resulting from this interaction. A perturbation expansion is employed, with the small parameter being proportional to topographic slope, to isolate fundamentally different topographic effects, and show how they enter systematically at each order. First- and second-order corrections appear to capture the essence of the topographic effect for all cases considered, even for values of the 'small' parameter as large as 0.5, and are qualitatively useful for a parameter value of unity. Results indicate the importance of surface Rossby wave dynamics at first order near the mountain and downshear from the mountain a distance inversely proportional to the growth rate of the most unstable mode of the system. The second-order correction projects onto the initial baroclinic wave. Being primarily out of phase with the initial wave, it contributes systematically to weakening the initial disturbance. This behavior changes notably for meridionally localized topography offset from the symmetry axis of the initial zonally invariant jet flow. The first-order correction affects the translational speed of the initial wave and, downshear from the mountain, grows as an unstable mode projecting strongly onto the scale of the initial wave. For a mountain to the south of the jet, the incident baroclinic wave is accelerated; for a mountain to the north, it is slowed. The dominant effect at second order is still a weakening of the initial wave. In the nonlinear regime, with a meridionally invariant mountain, the total topographic perturbation can be decomposed into a part excited by the wave-induced zonal-mean flow, and a part excited by the remaining transients whose interaction with topography qualitatively resembles that of the linear solution.

The present note proposes an explanation of topographic normal modes that grow in a flow with a zonally symmetric mountain. An issue of practical importance is whether one expects the maximum amplitude to occur poleward or equatorward of a mountain localized in the cross-stream direction. Using a quasigeostrophic model, it is shown that the occurrence of maximum amplitude to the south of the mountain occurs only for longer waves. For a given wave of medium scale, the amplitude is more likely to maximize to the south of the mountain for steeper slopes. The transient behavior resulting from the sudden appearance of a mountain in the presence of an Eady normal mode is discussed first. The topographic correction to the Eady mode quickly acquires a negative meridional tilt at the surface. This tilted structure penetrates upward to the lid and advects basic-state temperature. Because the phase tilt of the Eady mode varies with zonal wavelength, the phase of the topographic correction at the lid relative to the initial wave will vary similarly. For shorter zonal scales the primary cancellation of the initial wave is equatorward of the channel center, thus biasing the total disturbance amplitude poleward. The opposite occurs for longer waves. At long times, topographic modes emerge. These modes involve the interaction of gravest (symmetric) and first asymmetric modes meridionally through the topographic term in the lower boundary condition. The phase displacement of the symmetric and asymmetric modes is such as to damp the symmetric mode and amplify the asymmetric mode so that the two maintain the same growth rate. The phase relation of the symmetric and asymmetric modes varies with zonal wavelength and determines the meridional bias in amplitude of the total solution.