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Saffron is a spice that is obtained by dehydrating the stigmas of the Crocus sativus flower. Iran is the country that produces the largest amount of saffron, exceeding 90% of world production. Currently, there is a growing medicinal use which implies that there is more demand than supply worldwide, in turn, a large amount of labor is required to obtain it; for these two reasons, it reaches a high price in the international market. This demand is due to the high concentration of apocarotenoid metabolites that it biosynthesizes. In this work, the content of these metabolites of saffron from six production areas of Iran and neighbouring countries infected with saffron latent virus (SaLV) and dehydrated at two temperatures is compared. The corms of the six provenances were planted in a homogeneous plot and the stigmas analyzed were those of the second year after planting. The analysis showed that corms do not completely retain the memory of their original origin. In general, the ratio of the sum of mmol/kg of HTCC derivatives to the sum of the mmol of crocins is greater than two. This implies that the biosynthesis of saffron apocarotenoids due to the degradation of β-carotene towards HTCC is more important than that of zeaxanthin formation, which later gives HTCC and crocetin dialdehyde. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The spice saffron (Crocus sativus) has anticancer activity in several human tissues, but the molecular mechanisms underlying its potential therapeutic effects are poorly understood. We investigated the impact of safranal, a small molecule secondary metabolite from saffron, on the HCC cell line HepG2 using untargeted metabolomics (HPLC–MS) and transcriptomics (RNAseq). Increases in glutathione disulfide and other biomarkers for oxidative damage contrasted with lower levels of the antioxidants biliverdin IX (139-fold decrease, p = 5.3 × 105), the ubiquinol precursor 3-4-dihydroxy-5-all-trans-decaprenylbenzoate (3-fold decrease, p = 1.9 × 10−5), and resolvin E1 (−3282-fold decrease, p = 45), which indicates sensitization to reactive oxygen species. We observed a significant increase in intracellular hypoxanthine (538-fold increase, p = 7.7 × 10−6) that may be primarily responsible for oxidative damage in HCC after safranal treatment. The accumulation of free fatty acids and other biomarkers, such as S-methyl-5′-thioadenosine, are consistent with safranal-induced mitochondrial de-uncoupling and explains the sharp increase in hypoxanthine we observed. Overall, the dual omics datasets describe routes to widespread protein destabilization and DNA damage from safranal-induced oxidative stress in HCC cells. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) spice, traditionally used as food additive for its coloring and flavoring properties, has shown great potential to promote health. Among the main constituents of saffron spice, safranal has been shown to alleviate and prevent gastric disorders, cardiovascular diseases and to exert anticonvulsant, anxiolytic, antidepressive and neuroprotective activities. In this work, we recovered picrocrocin from saffron residues and efficiently biotransformed it using a halo-thermophilic β-glucosidase from Alicyclobacillus acidophilus (Aac), which gave the corresponding aglycone 4-hydroxysafranal with complete conversion (>99%) and rapid reaction times (15 min). After a thermic treatment, safranal was obtained in excellent yields. To make the process even more efficient and sustainable a one-pot, 2-step chemo-enzymatic transformation was set up, yielding a marketable natural safranal as final product. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Saffron inoculated with Rhizophagus intraradices produced a spice richer in safranal. • R. intraradices modulated the transcription of CCD2 and UGT709G1. • The expression of the genes for SLs and ABA biosynthesis did not change. • A biofertilizing effect was observed in the corms at flowering. Crocus sativus L. (saffron) has been propagated for millennia to produce the precious spice saffron from the red stigmas. The inebriant organoleptic and bioactive properties mainly depend on the content of crocins (dyeing capacity), picrocrocin (flavor), and safranal (aroma), apocarotenoids deriving from zeaxanthin. In this study, an integrated biochemical and molecular analysis was carried out on fresh saffron stigmas to investigate the influence exerted by the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (AMF) Rhizophagus intraradices on the production of the main saffron apocarotenoids responsible for the properties of the spice. Since mineral enrichment due to AM symbiosis has been related to changes in the secondary metabolism of plants, the mineral content of saffron corms at flowering was also analyzed. Rare arbuscules (AMF trade structures) were found in mycorrhized plants. However, the expression of D27, CCD7 , and NCED involved in the synthesis of strigolactones (SLs) and abscisic acid (ABA), which promote AM symbiosis, did not change in the stigmas. The transcription of β-LYC and CCD4a/b was not affected by AMF, whereas that of CCD2 , which encodes the key enzyme producing major apocarotenoids, was upregulated. The crocin content was reduced in treated plants even if the expression of ALDH, UGT74AD1 , and UGT91P3 , involved in crocin synthesis, did not change. Conversely, UGT709G1 , implicated in picrocrocin synthesis, was overexpressed in the inoculated plants, thus the safranal content was increased in the spice. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is an important spice and medicinal plant that is cultivated in Asia, Europe, North Africa, and North America. Its morphological and biochemical parameters, such as the changes in the floral parts (six tepals, three stamens, three stigmata), biomass, and chlorophyll content, are primarily affected by environmental conditions. A polymerase chain reaction–rapid amplified polymorphic DNA (PCR‐RAPD) approach was used to analyze the extent of the polymorphisms between C. sativus genotypes grown in the Saudi climate. In this research study, the DNA fingerprints of the stigmata of C. sativus genotypes [K1 & K2 = C. sativus var. cashmerianus, C1 = C. sativus (nonmutant), T1 = mutant (T0‐2B), T2 = mutant (T1‐2B), T3 = mutant (T4‐2A)] were determined according to the floral parts, and a total of 10 decamer primers were used for PCR‐RAPD analysis. Only three pairs of arbitrary primers showed polymorphisms (33.3%–88.2%) in the total genomic DNA extracted from these genotypes. Jaccard's similarity index (JSI) ranged from 0.88 to 1.0. An unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA) similarity and dendrogram matrix showed that two genotypes (T1‐2B and T4‐2A) were closely related to each other and to the strain CM‐cashmerianus, while the T0 of C. sativus genotype showed divergence. This study will provide a breakthrough in cultivating a mutant type of saffron, the most expensive spice worldwide in Saudi Arabia. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

• Hydroponic cultivation with bioinoculants may increase saffron profitability. • Plant growth promoting bacteria and an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus were tested. • Bioinoculants improved the spice's safranal concentration. • Mixed formulation increased saffron total phenolic content. • The corm yield resulted enhanced for inoculated plants. Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) is the most expensive spice in the world. Its organoleptic properties are mainly dictated by the apocarotenoids crocins (dyeing capacity), picrocrocin (pleasant taste), and safranal (scent). Cultivation of saffron in controlled conditions with beneficial microorganisms may increase its profitability. In this study saffron was grown in hydroponics under a greenhouse with the PGPR Bacillus megaterium CB97032 and Paenibacillus durus CB1806 (Pgpr treatment), and the AMF Rhizophagus intraradices (Myc treatment), alone or mixed (Mix treatment). The influence exerted during all crop phases on flowering trend, flower and spice yield, secondary metabolites, ecophysiological traits, and corm production was investigated, with the hypothesis that microbial synergy would have more positively affected these parameters. All the bioinoculants did not positively influence flower and spice yield, but enhanced the content of safranal (up to +96% in all the treated plants). When mixed, the PGPR and AMF improved the total phenolic content (+19%) of the saffron spice. Even if no differences emerged from the ecophysiological analysis, the corm yield was improved for the inoculated plants. The single-type bioinoculants allowed to obtain a higher number of replacement corms (up to +13% for the Myc plants) without reducing their weight, but lowering their size. When mixed, the size of the corms was restored. Together, the PGPR and AMF also increased the corm weight (+24%) of the largest corm fraction (> 1.5 cm). Thus, the bioinoculants may have stimulated the secondary metabolism of the plants by improving quality traits, rather than having acted as biofertilizers by increasing yield, at least during flowering. Overall, AMF and PGPR were proved to be a sustainable horticultural solution in hydroponics to improve the quality of saffron, especially when applied in mixed formulations. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This study was conducted to quantitatively characterize the aroma strength of saffron, Crocus sativus L. (Iridaceae), using an electronic nose (e-nose). Thirty-three saffron samples from different geographical regions were prepared for the experiments. The aroma strength of the saffron samples was determined based on the ISO 3632 method as E 1cm1%330nm directly relates to safranal concentration. Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) and Radial Basis Function (RBF) neural network models were then applied for the prediction of E1cm1%330nm using sensor array responses of the e-nose sensors. Principal Components Analysis (PCA) was also utilized for aroma feature selection and then dimensionality reduction of sensor array data sets for improving the neural models was applied. The results revealed that in the improved MLP model with lower-dimension data, the prediction accuracy of E1cm1%330nm (R² = 0.99, RMSE = 0.64) remained the same or slightly higher than the original model with higher-dimension data and also was better than those obtained using the RBF models. The overall results showed the suitability of e-nose as a nondestructive and online instrument for saffron aroma strength characterization. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Sicilian saffron is cultivated mainly in the province of Enna, although cultivation is spreading slowly throughout the region. Volatile constituents which are fundamental for saffron aroma were determined. A large number of volatile compounds were identified using HS–SPME and GC–MS. Safranal, safranal isomer, isophorones, α-cyclocitral, and β-cyclocitral were also quantified. A high amount of safranal resulted in the samples; moreover, of interest was the amount of safranal isomer and α-isophorone. The results allowed to consider Sicilian saffron of high commercial quality. It is an important source of bioactive compounds for the amount of safranal and related compounds, which are important for its aroma and relevant to human health too.ABSTRACT FROM PUBLISHERCopyright of Journal of Essential Oil Research is the property of Taylor & Francis Ltd and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the original published version of the material for the full abstract. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this work was a comparison of the ISO 3632 (2011) method and an HPLC-DAD method for safranal quantity determination in saffron. Samples from different origins were analysed by UV–vis according to ISO 3632 (2011) and by HPLC-DAD. Both methods were compared, and there was no correlation between the safranal content obtained by UV–vis and HPLC-DAD. An over-estimation in the UV–vis experiment was observed, which was related to the cis -crocetin esters content, as well as other compounds. The results demonstrated that there was no relationship between ISO quality categories and safranal content using HPLC-DAD. Therefore, HPLC-DAD might be preferable to UV–vis for determining the safranal content and the classification of saffron for commercial purposes. In addition, HPLC-DAD was adequate for determining the three foremost parameters that define the quality of saffron (crocetin esters, picrocrocin and safranal); therefore, this approach could be included in the ISO 3632 method (2011). [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saffron essential oil has a pleasant aroma and medicinal activities. However, it is sensible into the environmental condition. Therefore, it should be protected against unwanted changes during storage or processing. Encapsulation is introduced as a process by which liable materials are protected from unwanted changes. In the present study, different ratios (0:100, 25:75, 50:50, 75:25, and 100:0) of ß-cyclodextrin (ß-CD) and arabic gum (GA) were used as wall martial for encapsulation saffron essential oil. In order to calculate of loading capacity (LC) and encapsulation efficiency (EE), and release (RE), safranal was determined as indicator of saffron essential oil using GC. According to the results, the highest LC and EE were related to the mixture of ß-CD/GA at a 75:25 ratio. In contrast, the lowest encapsulate hygroscopicity (EH) and RE were observed when only ß-CD was applied as wall material (P≤0.05). Comparing the differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) thermograms of the control and encapsulate of ß-CD/GA (75:25) confirmed encapsulation of saffron essential oil. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images with high magnifications showed the rhombic structure that partially coated by GA. The mixture of ß-CD/GA at a 75:25 ratio can be recommended for saffron essential oil encapsulation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The applicability of the emerging non-destructive technique, proton transfer reaction mass spectrometry (PTR-MS), was explored for the first time in the quality control of saffron. Monitoring of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) was achieved using a minute sample (35 mg). Fresh saffron was stored under selected conditions (25 and 40 °C, a w = 0.64) over a five weeks period to produce lower quality material, which was used to prepare mixtures with fresh saffron. Analysis showed that the VOCs fingerprint changed upon storage, and the concentration of initially dominant VOC safranal decreased progressively. Examination of calculated and recorded fingerprints for various admixtures showed that PTR-MS VOCs analysis, in combination with chemometrics, could be used to screen for the presence of lower quality saffron in a commercial product in a few minutes. The technique can be used in a complementary fashion, adding to the battery of advanced analytical techniques available to address the quality and authenticity issues of saffron. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Saffron (Crocus sativus) is a widely used food additive for its color and taste. Crocin and safranal are two main components of this plant. Numerous studies are underway to introduce saffron and its active ingredients as pharmacological agents. Safety assessments of these compounds are important parts of this endeavor. In this study, the effects of crocin and safranal administrations during embryogenesis have been investigated in mice. A total of 75 BALB/c pregnant mice were divided into six experimental and control groups. Four experimental groups received intraperitoneal injection of crocin (200 mg/kg or 600 mg/kg) daily or safranal (0.075 ml/kg or 0.225 ml/kg) on gestational days (GDs) 6 to 15. Control groups received normal saline or paraffin as solvents of crocin and safranal. Dams were dissected on GD18 and embryos were collected. Routine maternal and fetal parameters were recorded. Macroscopic observation of external malformations was also performed. Fetuses were then selected for double skeletal staining with alizarin red and alcian blue. All experimental groups caused significant decrease in length and weight of fetuses when compared with the control groups and revealed malformations such as minor skeletal malformations, mandible and calvaria malformations, and growth retardation. Minor skeletal malformations were the most commonly observed abnormality, which were statistically significant when compared with the control groups (p < 0.05). The severities of malformations were comparable in the crocin- and safranal-treated groups. This study suggests that crocin or safranal can induce embryonic malformations when administered in pregnant mice. Due to the wide use of saffron, further elaborate studies to understand the malformation mechanisms of these ingredients are recommended. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

BACKGROUND Saffron ( Crocus sativus L.) is one of the most expensive medicinal and aromatic plants in the world. Due to the excessive application of chemical fertilisers in saffron farms and alkalinity of most cultivated soils, split foliar fertilisation has been suggested. The primary goal of this study was to propose split foliar fertilisation as a technique in increasing the quality and quantity of active constituents in saffron. HPLC analysis was used to quantify the most important saffron components; crocins (colour), picrocrocin (taste), and safranal (odour). This study was carried out in Kashmar, Iran, to determine the effect of split foliar fertilisations on quality and quantity of saffron in 2011 and 2012. A split-plot design experiment based on randomised complete block with three replications was conducted to examine three fertiliser types in three regimes for split foliar fertilisation. RESULTS Statistical analysis showed that split foliar fertilisation and the fertiliser type significantly increased saffron yield, number of flowers and crocin; whereas it decreased the picrocrocin and safranal content of the saffron stigmas ( P < 0.05). CONCLUSION Overall, split foliar fertilisation increased saffron yield and colour but decreased the taste and the odour of saffron. © 2013 Society of Chemical Industry [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Growth of undesirable moulds is one of the major causes of defects in modern cheese production, and it is necessary to discover natural antifungal substances that are non-toxic to humans. Saffron spice has been successfully used as a new ingredient in some Italian or Spanish cheeses, but transference of safranal (the main compound responsible for saffron aroma) during cheesemaking has not yet been studied. In this study, the distribution of safranal in cheese, whey and requesón (Spanish whey cheese) and the antifungal potential of whey fractions against the mould Penicillium verrucosum were studied. To this end, a duplicate fabrication of cheeses was performed with raw ewe's milk with the addition of 40 μg safranal.kg −1 or control milk (no safranal addition). Safranal was more concentrated in cheese and requesón (78.91 and 76.95 μg.kg −1, respectively) than in whey and requesón whey (35.19 and 34.64 μg.kg −1, respectively). These liquid fractions showed good antifungal properties and inhibited mould with a safranal concentration of around 35 μg.kg −1, while a solution of 80 μg.kg −1 was required for a standard safranal solution to obtain a similar inhibition. These results reveal that whey has a synergistic effect with safranal in preventing cheese spoilage by moulds, which encourages making full use of this problematic by-product. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: A method to determine safranal content based on non-polar solvent extraction followed by UV–Vis analysis available in the industry for quality control of saffron spice has been studied. Ultrasound-assisted extraction of safranal was carried out and optimised with respect to the solvent: diethyl ether, hexane and chloroform; the time of extraction; and the concentration of saffron in each organic solvent. Best extraction conditions were obtained when 20gL−1 of saffron was extracted with chloroform for 15min. Intra-laboratory validation of the optimised conditions and analysis by UV–Vis spectrophotometry showed satisfactory results in linearity, repeatability, intermediate precision and recovery. The limit of detection was 1mg safranal kg−1 saffron and the limit of quantification was 3mg safranal kg−1 saffron. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

Saffron (Crocus sativus L.) has been an important subject of interest for research teams in the past two decades because of its various biological properties. Chemical analysis has shown the presence of more than 150 components in saffron stigmas. Here, we review the medicinal and industrial applications of saffron. Then, the new findings from different research groups about its medicinal properties and various cellular and molecular mechanisms of action will be discussed. The methods used for this study included searching Web of Science and Medline for saffron and its constituent's applications. The results show that in recent years saffron's application in a variety of disorders involving neuronal, cardiovascular and other systems, as well as cancer have been investigated. The cellular and molecular mechanisms of its action are also under study. The more powerful components of saffron are carotenoids and monoterpene aldehydes. Structure-function relationship studies show that some properties are related to deglycosylated derivatives, while others belong to more glycosylated ones. Our study concludes that saffron has a wide range of usefulness in medicine, cosmetics, and coloring industries, so it can be used for new drug designs. However, more research about its mechanism of action is needed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Abstract: The primary goal of this study was to propose saffron as a sustainable substitute crop with high added value in some Moroccan agricultural areas with low and erratic rainfalls, for their socio-economical development. The quality of the saffron spice has to be evaluated prior to recommendation for commercial production. For this purpose, saffron was grown in experimental plots for the first time in eleven different experimental zones with a disparity of altitudes, soils and climates. High-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) was used to quantify the most important saffron components crocins, picrocrocin, and safranal which are respectively responsible for its colour, taste and odour. The respective average values, in % dry matter, across all sites altogether are 29.01±5.6; 14.04±7.1 and 0.22±0.11. The statistical analysis shows that crocins are stable under each specific environment tested (p >5%) for 3 years of study. Meanwhile, there was a large variability in safranal content for the same period (p <0.05). This suggests that post-harvest processing of saffron produced under different environments may need to be improved. Analysis of environmental impact on saffron quality showed that just the altitude affects crocins (R 2 =0.84, p <0.05). [Copyright &y& Elsevier]

The aroma of saffron has received much attention from scientists in recent years, not only for the compounds that make it up, but also for its glycosidic precursors. Despite it all, the volatile generation mechanisms of the spice are almost completely unknown. Only the generation of safranal, the major compound, from picrocrocin has been established. The great effort carried out to detect and identify the volatile compounds of saffron has not been enough to clarify which compounds are responsible for saffron aroma. In general, scientists has devoted little attention to the sample analyzed, taking for granted that all saffron is the same, something that makes it difficult to establish a comparison between the results obtained by the different authors, to the point that saffron aroma has not been defined yet. It must be clarified whether saffron aroma is what the consumer perceives via nasally when a container of the spice is uncovered, or whether on the contrary, it is the aroma conferred to food, normally after a thermal cooking process, and perceived retronasally. After an extensive bibliographic research, simple assays are suggested to understand what could be considered as saffron aroma, results that may help to delimit the research for future studies. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Crocus sativus L. has been cultivated throughout history to obtain its flowers, whose dried stigmas give rise to the spice known as saffron. Crocetin esters, picrocrocin, and safranal are the main metabolites of this spice, which possess a great bioactivity, although the mechanisms of action and its bioavailability are still to be solved. The rest of the flower is composed by style, tepals, and stamens that have other compounds, such as kaempferol and delphinidin, which have an important antioxidant capacity, and these can be applied in foods, phytopharmaceuticals, and cosmetics. The aim of this work was to provide an updated and critical review of the research on the main compounds of Crocus sativus L. flower, including the adequate analytical methods for their identification and quantification, with a focus on their bioactivity and bioavailability. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]