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[ES] La arquitectura vernácula suele decirse adaptada al lugar y al modo de vida de sus habitantes. Pero las sociedades y sus culturas no son estáticas. El comportamiento y el entorno cambian y, con ellos, también la manera de construirlo. A la vez, este tipo de arquitectura ha reunido unas cualidades y alcanzado un grado de armonía entre naturaleza, construcción y comunidad que no siempre ha conseguido ser emulado por la profesión moderna de la arquitectura. Así, surge una contradicción aparente: cómo preservar el saber-hacer de estos entornos en el cambio. La síntesis entre conservación y adaptación parece resolverse en el aprendizaje: ¿qué lecciones de lo vernáculo es posible extraer y aplicar a la planificación contemporánea a pesar de las transformaciones? Para aproximarse a la respuesta, la investigación parte de antecedentes de estudio: sobre el contexto general de transformación del ámbito rural en un panorama donde el cambio parece inevitable; sobre la arquitectura vernácula, su estudio y cierta crítica a algunas tendencias de la modernidad; y sobre el contexto específico de la investigación en Burkina Faso. A partir de esta base, el trabajo se sitúa en dos escenarios: el de la arquitectura tradicional mossi en el pueblo de Baasneere (Región Centro-Norte), construida, habitada e inmersa en un proceso de cambio similar al de otros hábitats tradicionales en el país; el de la disciplina y profesión de la arquitectura modernas en Burkina Faso, con actitudes distintas hacia lo vernáculo a lo largo de las etapas históricas de urbanización del país. Cada escenario sugiere preguntas específicas de investigación que son abordadas mediante la revisión bibliográfica relativa a cada tema, el estudio de campo con observación participante, entrevistas abiertas y semiestructuradas, la documentación gráfica y la elaboración de fichas para registrar casos de viviendas tradicionales y sus cambios. En el primer escenario, la constatación de las transformaciones que afectan a la arquitectura vernácula, justificadas en cambios sociales y culturales, permite identificar algunos conflictos y lecciones. En el segundo escenario, un acercamiento de la disciplina hacia lo local es apreciado en determinadas tendencias definitivamente puestas en práctica en algunos casos de proyectos de cooperación al desarrollo. Parece ser en ese ámbito de trabajo donde algunas de las lecciones de lo vernáculo encuentran su aplicación más directa. Para terminar, el enfoque de la investigación se abre para proponer una reflexión sobre los puntos en común con otros contextos a nivel global. Si una determinada forma de progreso ha desencadenado modificaciones similares en los entornos rurales a nivel global, maneras alternativas de considerarlo deberían conducir a soluciones en común. En definitiva, la consideración de los entornos vernáculos, surgidos de relaciones de cooperación y simbiosis, podría tener la significación, en la primera mitad del siglo XXI, de despertar cierta conciencia de adecuación y mostrar vías posibles de acción para trabajar en la adaptación real de nuestros entornos y el arraigo de nuestras sociedades., [CA] L'arquitectura vernacla sol dir-se adaptada al lloc i a la manera de vida dels seus habitants. Però les societats i les seues cultures no són estàtiques. El comportament i l'entorn canvien i, amb ells, també la manera de construir-lo. Alhora, aquest tipus d'arquitectura ha reunit unes qualitats i aconseguit un grau d'harmonia entre naturalesa, construcció i comunitat que no sempre ha aconseguit ser emulat per la professió moderna de l'arquitectura. Així, sorgeix una contradicció aparent: com preservar el saber-fer d'aquests entorns en el canvi. La síntesi entre conservació i adaptació sembla resoldre's en l'aprenentatge: quines lliçons del vernacle és possible extraure i aplicar a la planificació contemporània malgrat les transformacions? Per a aproximar-se a la resposta, la investigació parteix d'antecedents d'estudi: sobre el context general de transformació de l'àmbit rural en un panorama on el canvi sembla inevitable; sobre l'arquitectura vernacla, el seu estudi i una certa crítica a algunes tendències de la modernitat; i sobre el context específic de la investigació a Burkina Faso. A partir d'aquesta base, el treball se situa en dos escenaris: el de l'arquitectura tradicional mossi al poble de Baasneere (Regió Centre-Nord), construïda, habitada i immersa en un procés de canvi similar al d'altres hàbitats tradicionals al país; el de la disciplina i professió de l'arquitectura modernes a Burkina Faso, amb actituds diferents cap al vernacle al llarg de les etapes històriques d'urbanització del país. Cada escenari suggereix preguntes específiques d'investigació que són abordades mitjançant la revisió bibliogràfica relativa a cada tema, l'estudi de camp amb observació participant, entrevistes obertes i semi-estructurades, la documentació gràfica i l'elaboració de fitxes per a registrar casos d'habitatges tradicionals i els seus canvis. En el primer escenari, la constatació de les transformacions que afecten l'arquitectura vernacla, justificades en canvis socials i culturals, permet identificar alguns conflictes i lliçons. En el segon escenari, un acostament de la disciplina cap al local és apreciat en determinades tendències definitivament posades en pràctica en alguns casos de projectes de cooperació al desenvolupament. Sembla ser en aquest àmbit de treball on algunes de les lliçons del vernacle troben la seua aplicació més directa. Per a acabar, l'enfocament de la investigació s'obri per a proposar una reflexió sobre els punts en comú amb altres contextos a nivell global. Si una determinada forma de progrés ha desencadenat modificacions similars en els entorns rurals a nivell global, maneres alternatives de considerar-ho haurien de conduir a solucions en comú. En definitiva, la consideració dels entorns vernacles, sorgits de relacions de cooperació i simbiosi, podria tindre la significació, en la primera meitat del segle XXI, de despertar una certa consciència d'adequació i mostrar vies possibles d'acció per a treballar en l'adaptació real dels nostres entorns i l'arrelament de les nostres societats., [EN] Vernacular architecture is often said to be adapted to the place and the way of life of its inhabitants. But societies and their cultures are not static. Behaviour and environment change and, with them, so does the way it is built. At the same time, this type of architecture has brought together qualities and achieved a degree of harmony between nature, building and community that has not always managed to be emulated by the modern architectural profession. Thus, an apparent contradiction arises: how to preserve the know-how of these environments in change. The synthesis between preservation and adaptation seems to be resolved in learning: what lessons from the vernacular can be drawn and applied to contemporary planning despite the transformations? To approach the answer, the research is based on a background of studies: on the general context of rural transformation in a perspective where change seems inevitable; on vernacular architecture, its study and some criticism of certain trends of modernity; and on the specific context of research in Burkina Faso. On this basis, the work is situated in two scenarios: that of traditional Mossi architecture in the village of Baasneere (Centre-North Region), built, inhabited and immersed in a process of change similar to that of other traditional habitats in the country; that of the modern discipline and profession of architecture in Burkina Faso, with different attitudes towards the vernacular throughout the historical periods of the country's urbanisation. Each scenario suggests specific research questions that are addressed by means of a literature review on each topic, a field study with participant observation, open and semi-structured interviews, graphic documentation, and the creation of sheets to record cases of traditional dwellings and their changes. In the first scenario, the observation of the transformations affecting vernacular architecture, justified by social and cultural changes, makes it possible to identify some conflicts and lessons. In the second scenario, a rapprochement of the discipline towards the local can be seen in certain tendencies, definitely put into practice in some cases of development cooperation projects. It seems to be in this field of work that some of the lessons of the vernacular find their most direct application. Finally, the research approach opens up to propose a reflection on the points in common with other contexts at the global level. If a particular form of progress has triggered similar changes in rural environments globally, alternative ways of looking at it should lead to common solutions. In short, the consideration of vernacular environments, arising from relations of cooperation and symbiosis, could have the significance, in the first half of the 21st century, of awakening a certain awareness of adequacy and showing possible ways of action to work on the real adaptation of our environments and the rootedness of our societies.

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Resumen Objetivo. Analizar los entornos investigativos del trabajo social para su fundamentación disciplinar en el contexto territorial de Boyacá, Colombia. Metodología. El estudio es cualitativo y la técnica utilizada fue revisión documental a 134 investigaciones formativas del programa de trabajo social realizadas entre los años 2009 a 2019 en la Fundación Universitaria Juan de Castellanos. Resultados. La información se organizó en tres entornos: 1) internacionalización y desarrollo, destacado por las espacialidades rurales como escenario de mayor análisis disciplinar. 2) ambientes del trabajo social, caracterizado por los tránsitos laborales entre contextos conservadores y contemporáneos que revalúan constantemente el quehacer profesional y 3) entorno territorial comunitario, expresado en una tendencia que comprende las organizaciones campesinas y la interacción establecida con las ecologías del departamento. Conclusión. La relación entre ser humano y entorno fortalece la fundamentación del trabajo social en un contexto regional marcado por la ruralidad que envuelve al territorio boyacense. Abstract Objective. To analyze the research environments of social work for its disciplinary foundation in the territorial context of Boyacá, Colombia. Methodology. The study is qualitative in which a documentary review of 134 formative investigations of the Social Work Program, that were carried out between 2009 and 2019 at the Fundación Universitaria Juan de Castellanos, were used. Results. The collected data was organized in three environments: 1. Internationalization and development, highlighted by rural spatialities as the scene for further disciplinary analysis; 2. Environments of social work, characterized by labor transits between conservative and contemporary contexts that constantly reassess the professional work; and 3. Community territorial environment, expressed in a trend that includes peasant organizations and the interaction established with the ecologies of the Department of Boyaca. Conclusion. The connection between human being and environment strengthens the foundation of social work in a regional context marked by the rurality that surrounds the Boyacense territory.

Questo articolo analizza il ruolo dei servitori nel mondo rurale lombardo della prima età moderna, quando in molte parti della bassa pianura si stavano sperimentando importanti trasformazioni agrarie. Pur trattandosi di un processo ancora in itinere, la conduzione dei poderi assumeva ormai chiari caratteri capitalistici, dove pochi grandi affittuari (i fittabili) organizzavano il lavoro di molti braccianti salariati giornalieri. In ragione di questi cambiamenti, questo articolo si propone di considerare come e se cambiò la diffusione dei domestici rurali in Lombardia e quali mansioni svolsero nel contesto di questa evoluzione capitalista. In altri termini, si tratta di comprendere quale fu la funzione dei servi in queste economie e quali le loro relazioni di lavoro e di potere nei confronti dei conduttori dei fondi e degli altri lavoratori. Servants and capitalist agriculture. Work and power relationships in the early modern rural Lombardy. This article analyzes the role played by the servants in the rural Lombardy during the early modern period. At that age, several parts of the low plain were experimenting important agrarian changes. Even if that was an ongoing process, the farms management was already almost completely oriented to capitalistic characters, where few wealthy tenants (the fittabili) organised the work for a lot of daily wage workers. In view of the mentioned changes, this article aims to consider how and if the functions of the rural servants in Lombardy changed and which tasks they performed in the contest of this capitalistic evolution. In other words, the goal is to understand which roles played the servants in these economies and which was their work and power relationship with regard to the tenants and the other workers.

ITALIANO: Il saggio studia un documento raro: il censimento (numerazione dei fuochi) di Fratta piccola (oggi Frattaminore), un centro rurale vicino Napoli, nel 1522, concentradosi sulle procedure per il conteggio dei fuochi nel regno di Napoli e sulla descrizione delle famiglie. Il villaggio ha un profilo demografico giovane e dinamico, influenzato dalla vicinanza della capitale. / ENGLISH: The paper studies a rare record: the census (numerazione dei fuochi) of Fratta piccola (today Frattaminore), a village near Naples, in 1522, focusing on the process of counting the households in the Kingdom of Naples and on the description of the families. The village had a young and dynamic demographic profile, influenced by the capital city.

UIDB/04038/2020 UIDP/04038/2020 Focusing on the ritual of the Commending of the Souls in Penha Garcia (Portugal), this article analyzes how its recasting as heritage is re-inventing a declining rurality and aiding an uncertain future. A renewed vernacular engagement with the ritual, along with the local use of heritage policy to render it intangible heritage is 1) generating a vernacularization of Portuguese Catholicism (analogous to “religious pluralization”), and 2) construing heritage-making as an efficacious technique of religious belief. This article argues that the collective engagement of local actors in the processes of vernacularization and transforming of this ritual into heritage is (re-)enchanting the virtuosity of their local religiosity, which embodies and suspends a structural uncertainty. publishersversion published

In the field of political science, township governments and villages are dealt with in different contexts. Studies on township governments are often discussed in the context of intergovernmental relations, and emphasize the hierarchy of the government’s power system and aspects of policy enforcement. Studies on villages, on the other hand, are frequently discussed in the context of villagers’ autonomy, with attention paid to factors such as the election systems and autonomy issues. This paper examines how collective economies and village election shape the relationship between township governments and villages (village chiefs) from the perspective of the principal-agent approach, based on case studies of China’s coastal region.

Dowry is a common custom observed in South Asian countries. Despite alleged negative consequences caused by dowry and the legal ban or restrictions on its practice, the custom has been extended, and recently, dowry amounts seem to be increasing. Compared with public interest in and theoretical studies on dowry, empirical studies are relatively scarce mainly due to data unavailability and inadequacy. We conducted a household survey specifically designed to empirically investigate how dowry is associated with women’s status in the marital household in rural Punjab, Pakistan. The dataset is unique because it gathers information on disaggregated marriage expenses, which enables us to examine the relation between each itemized component of dowry and women’s status. Results show that a higher dowry amount, especially in terms of furniture, electronics, and kitchenware, is positively associated with women’s status in the marital household. The positive association of these illiquid items adds suggestive evidence that in rural Punjab, Pakistan, dowry serves as a trousseau that the bride’s parents voluntarily offer to their daughter.

Intergenerational family relationships still performed an important social function in rural society in Europe at the beginning of the twentieth century. The situation within the Czech family illustrates the current problems in family ties and intergenerational relationships that have surfaced since the nineteen nineties. Negative developmental trends are being seen, particularly in comparison with family circumstances in other European countries, most significantly the continuing ageing of the population and the wide-ranging activities of seniors. Looser relationships with their families and a decline in their engagement in caring for their grandchildren mean that Czech grandparents tend to rank alongside more socially developed countries in this respect. Under Czech conditions, however, this can lead to great strain on the active roles played by seniors. The growing number of adult offspring, particularly men, living with their parents is a far from progressive trend in social and economic development, and corresponds more closely with southern European traditions. A preference for alternative forms of cohabitation, particularly among partners with primary education, the postponing of the birth of the first child, the growth in the number of single-person households and, perhaps most importantly, the enormous rise in the number of households comprised of young or middle-aged individuals in the economically productive age group may, it is true, rank the Czech Republic among socially developed countries and at around the European average, though in view of the unfavourable demographic trend a fundamental change in state support for marriage and the family is, however, also essential in the Czech Republic. The fact is that more than a third of families with children are threatened with poverty. The conclusion arising from the analyses performed indicates that the current problems in state social and family policy are reflected in the increasing importance of the family and the fact that it cannot be replaced by public institutions. At the end of the twentieth century, the family is again becoming the focus of certainty and material security, and intergenerational solidarity remains an important traditional value.

Rural banditry in Algeria during the colonial period is a significant social phenomenon and is a gateway to understand social relations in rural and colonial situations.The process of land dispossession and the questioning of user rights in forest areas fuel rural conflicts. Banditry is an exacerbated expression of these conflicts. Bandits are defined by the state who set the areas of the law and those of the outlaw. The phenomenon preoccupies the administration constantly, but the degree of anxiety varies depending on political situations. In 1890s for example, the autorities consider as a fact threatening its domination. This perceived resistance gives rise to a repressive reaction. This reaction faces difficulties and even a hostility emaning from rural society.The intervention of the armed force may be the ultimate outcome of episodes of banditry even if the repressive repertoire implemented shows a great diversity. Banditry is going through a period of peak with the First World War. The unpopularity of conscription favors insubordination and desertion, which in turn feed gangs of bandits. This activity worries the autority, anxious about potential revolts. These are realized besides in favor of the autumn 1916 in the Belezma. A strong interaction is expressed between bandits and insurgents, the first playing a leading role in this episode.; Le banditisme rural en Algérie pendant la période coloniale est un phénomène social siginficatif et constitue une porte d'entrée dans la compréhension des rapports sociaux en milieu rural et en situation coloniale. Le processus de dépossession foncière ainsi que la remise en cause des droits d'usage dans les zones forestières alimentent une conflictualité rurale dont le banditisme est une expression exacerbée. Ces bandits sont définis par l'état qui fixe les domaines de la loi et ceux du hors-la- loi. Le phénomène préocuppe l'administration constamment mais le degré d'inquiétude connaît des variations politiques. Dans les années 1890, par exemple, les autorités considèrent le banditisme comme un fait remettant en cause sa domination. Cette résistance perçue suscite en retour une réaction répressive. Celle-ci se heurte à des difficultés multiples et fait face notamment à une sourde hostilité émanant de la société rurale. L'intervention de la force armée peut constituer l'ultime dénouement des épisodes de banditisme même si le répertoire répressif mis en oeuvre présente une grande diversité. Le banditisme connaît une période d'acmé avec la Première Guerre mondiale. L'impopularité de la conscription favorise insoumissions et désertions qui alimentent à leur tour des groupes de bandits. Cette activité préoccupe l'autorité, inquiète des potentielles révoltes. Celles-ci se réalisent d'ailleurs à la faveur de l'automne 1916 dans le Belezma. Une forte interaction s'y exprime entre bandits et insurgés, les premiers jouant un rôle central dans cet épisode.

This paper spells out the descriptive information of our primary-data collection survey. The survey was conducted in the Marinduque province, the Philippines for researches on exploring male underperformance in education. The province was selected from the regions of typicality with the research topic in the country. The provincial economy is characterized as a rural economy in which primary sectors are prevailing. Self-employment miscellaneous occupations and public servants also prevail in the economy. The male youth in our sample underperform in education not only in academic achievements but also in enrollment status and daily activities as compare to their female counterparts. The male youth stopped or dropout from schooling earlier and more. While the hindrances to schoolings are generally common to both males and females, this paper presents some reported situations they face differently.

Resumen: Este artículo aborda la dinámica de las redes sociales en el proceso de origen y reproducción de la migración internacional emergente, acelerada y heterogénea, que ha tenido lugar en el norte de Veracruz, México, en la última década del siglo XX y principios del XXI. El análisis se centra en las migraciones de los campesinos e indígenas totonacos, de la sierra papanteca. La discusión se apoya en los planteamientos teóricos de la migración como proceso social, en las redes sociales como marco para las interacciones de los actores rurales que han establecido espacios de trabajo y de vida entre los municipios de la sierra y la región, así como en las ciudades del centro del país, la frontera norte, Estados Unidos y Canadá. Esta investigación se sustenta en información bibliográfica y en la obtenida por medio de trabajo de campo en diversas comunidades rurales de la sierra de Papantla, en el norte-centro de Veracruz. Damos cuenta de los diversos tipos de movilidades de los actores rurales que en su ir y venir modifican las conductas y expectativas de sus contextos de origen. Abstract: This article addresses the dynamics of social networks in the process of origin and reproduction of the emerging, accelerated and heterogeneous international migration that has taken place in the north of Veracruz, Mexico, in the last decade of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st. The analysis focuses on the migrations of the Totonac peasants and indigenous people of the Sierra Papanteca. The discussion is based on the theoretical approaches to migration as a social process, in social networks as a framework for the interactions of rural stakeholders who have established working and living spaces between the municipalities of the sierra (highlands) and the region, as well as with the cities in the center of the country, the northern border, the United States and Canada. The investigation is based on bibliographic information and on that obtained through field work in various rural communities located in the Sierra Papantla in north-central Veracruz. The article illustrates the different types of mobility of rural actors who, in their comings and goings, modify the behaviors and expectations of their contexts of origin.

Dowries are prevalent in South Asian countries, despite legal bans. Theoretical studies suggest that increasing women's financial contribution to households is the key to effectively abolishing this practice. To empirically examine this proposition, we conducted a unique survey in rural Pakistan, and gathered contemporaneous information about the expected amount of dowry for unmarried daughters. The estimation results show a negative association between female labor force participation and the expected amount of dowry, whereas no negative association is observed with other marriage expenses. These findings suggest that the negative association derives from appreciation of working women rather than their stigmatization.

Introduction: Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) and Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) remain the major indicator in assessing the level of certain country’s health quality. Both of Indonesia’s MMR and IMR levels are high enough compared to other ASEAN countries. To address this problem, a synergic cooperation among the cross-linked authorities is of prime important. One possible alternate option is building the Integrated Maternity Management model through promoting and preventive encouragement particularly designated for rural societies whose knowledge is relatively lower than the ones in urban areas. Methods: This research is conducted in Mumbulsari and Sukorambi Sub-Districts. The data collection techniques used in this research are survey/observation, interview, FGD, in-depth interview and, PRA conducted both to societies (local figures, people at risk, female teenagers, under-aged pregnant mother and young mothers) and local institutions and authorities. Result: This research has been able to formulate the Integrated Maternity Management model through promoting and preventive encouragement particularly designated for rural societies in the attempts of lowering the MMR and IIMR. This model has undergone trial, although the trial is simple in nature, by using the module medias of (1) teenager’s reproductive health which generated the average perception of the teenagers shown by the figure of 58,67 regarding their reproductive health prior to the intervention with minimum score of 30 and maximum score of 85. Meanwhile, upon applying the intervention, the average showed the figure of 81,33 with minimum score of 60 and maximum score of 95. The margin between the pre-test and post-test values reaches the figure of 22,36. This means that the supply of information regarding the module (1) which discusses the health reproductive issue generates better knowledge of those female teenagers concerning the respective issue. Discussion: Therefore, it is suggested that the implementation of the Integrated Maternity Management model through promoting and preventive encouragement put into action by initiating a comprehensive trial in order to generate the most suitable model, respectively.Keywords: integrated maternity management model, promotive and preventive, MMR and IMR, rural societies

Climate change is a global threat which has particularly strong impacts on countries whose economies are highly dependent on agriculture and still developing--like Nepal. As these impacts increase, there is a need to understand how those most vulnerable are experiencing and reacting to climate change. As such, this study aims to understand the effects of climate change via changes in atmospheric conditions in Bansar Village Development Committee, a rural community located in Lamjung District, and document community-led adaptation strategies. Household surveys and focused group discussions were conducted in conjunction with long-term meteorological data. Results show the temperature has increased significantly in the study area. Additionally, precipitation has increased in the pre-monsoon, monsoon, and post-monsoon season while it has decreased in winter leading to droughts. The probability of erratic rainfall occurrence and severe weather such as hailstorms has also increased. Lastly, invasive species have been reported and observed. The combination of these impacts has led to increased crop failure and consequently decreased agricultural production thus threatening the livelihoods of this agricultural based community. However, Bansar residents are actively working to adapt to and mitigate the effects of climate change. Their responses include changing farming methods and installing new water infrastructure.

Le propos de l’étude est d’identifier un certain nombre de questions en suspens sur la pratique de la transhumance en Italie centrale à l’époque romaine et de suggérer quelques pistes nouvelles de recherche sur ces déplacements réguliers et saisonniers des troupeaux et des hommes à plus ou moins longue distance. Après avoir rappelé quelques définitions, notamment les trois emplois principaux du mot latin saltus, l’auteur centre son attention sur la complémentarité de l’agriculture et de l’élevage, trop souvent oubliée. Ce thème dont elle avait souligné l’intérêt lors de la rencontre de 2012 a été retenu pour la rencontre de 2013. L’auteur souligne la diversité des terres – mises en culture ou non – qui peuvent servir de pâturages aux troupeaux. Parmi les orientations envisagées pour l’avenir on notera les suivantes : dépasser les limites chronologiques imposées par la majorité des sources écrites, élargir l’espace géographique considéré et développer les comparaisons. Par la diversité des questions qu’elle pose ainsi que des domaines, des disciplines et des méthodes qu’elle met en cause, l’étude de la transhumance est l’une des clefs les plus fascinantes de lecture et de compréhension du fonctionnement des sociétés rurales : cette pratique a constitué en effet au long des siècles un « objet social total ». This study identifies a certain number of unanswered questions concerning the practice of transhumance in central Italy in Roman times and suggests some new directions for research addressing such seasonal movements of flocks and men over distances. After reviewing certain definitions, in particular, the three principal uses of the Latin term saltus, the author concentrates on the complementary nature of agriculture and breeding, which is often neglected. This theme, which she had emphasized at the 2012 meeting, was the basis of the 2013 meeting. The author underscores the diversity of lands, whether cultivated or not, which can serve as pastures for flocks or herds. Among possible directions for future work might be the following: moving beyond the chronological limits imposed by the majority of written sources, broadening the geographical space to be studied, and developing comparisons. Because of the diversity of questions it raises, as well as the diversity of domains, disciplines, and methods of analysis it requires, the study of transhumance is one of the most fascinating keys for reading and understanding rural societies. Throughout the centuries, the practice has indeed constituted a “total social object.”

El objetivo de este artículo es mostrar cómo los cambios en la nupcialidad que se han suscitado en los últimos años en el campo en México han dado lugar a convivencias residenciales y arreglos económicos que han creado -o recreado- relaciones de poder, subordinación y desigualdades de género para las mujeres en los hogares. Se trata de relaciones de poder, subordinación y desigualdades de género que no emanan de las relaciones entre las parejas en hogares conyugales. La no formación de uniones y la disolución de las uniones han desplazado las relaciones, las tensiones, los conflictos, la violencia de género tradicional, centrado en las relaciones con el cónyuge y su familia hacia el grupo doméstico de origen de las mujeres. La nueva fase de la migración México-Estados Unidos ha tendido a exacerbar esas tendencias sociodemográficas y las tensiones domésticas dentro de los grupos domésticos de origen de las mujeres. The aim of this paper is to show how changes in the marriages have resulted in residential retreats and economic arrangements. They have created - or recreated - power relationships, subordination and gender inequality for women in their households. But these power relationships, subordination and gender inequalities emanate not only from the relations between couples in marital homes. Trends, such as the non-formation or dissolution of unions have shifted relationships, imbalances, tensions, conflicts, traditional gender violence, from the relationship of the spouse and his family -as was traditional in Mexico- to the original domestic group of the women. That is where new imbalances and gender subordination have emerged, framing the lives of women today. The new phase of the Mexico-US migration has tended to exacerbate these demographic trends and domestic tensions within the original domestic group of the women.

In contrast to the remarkable progress in developing countries in improving primary education, access to higher education in many countries remains limited, especially in rural areas where the quality of education is inadequate. We evaluate a DVD-based distance-learning program in rural Bangladesh, targeted at students aiming to take university entrance tests. We conducted two experiments: one to evaluate the effect of the distance-learning program and the second to determine the demand and price sensitivity. Our first experiment shows that the DVD-based distance-learning program has a considerable positive effect on the number of students passing entrance exams. This effect does not depend on cognitive scores, but does depend on non-cognitive attributes, indicating the importance of commitment, which is imposed through our program. In the second experiment, we offered a random subsidy to interested participants. The uptake decision is price-sensitive, although the price sensitivity is not correlated with students' past academic performance or their socio-economic status, suggesting that increasing the price should not disproportionately exclude poor students.

Asumiendo como punto de partida que lo rural como representación social remite a una multiplicidad de figuraciones y significaciones creadas y utilizadas por los diversos actores sociales para dar sentido a las vivencias por ellos mismos asumidas rurales, el artículo tiene como fin analizar cómo las representaciones de modo de vida rural construidas y operadas por un grupo social particular: neorrurales o nuevos habitantes del campo, intervienen, transformativamente, sobre la dinámica social local de los sitios de acogida. En esta oportunidad, el grupo focal corresponde a los neorrurales asentados en una zona rural del municipio de Manizales (Caldas, Colombia). Acogiendo la premisade que el neorruralismo expresa un cambio en las relaciones entre el individuo y su medio biofísico-social, la presentación y la discusión de resultados gira en torno a tres ejes analíticos principales: a) las interacciones individuo-entorno natural, b) las interacciones individuoentorno sociocomunitario y c) las interacciones individuo-espacio, enfatizando sus efectos sobre el ámbito colectivo, más allá del plano meramente individual. El artículo concluye con algunas consideraciones acerca de este tipo de estudios en contextos como el local, el nacional y el latinoamericano.ABSTRACTAssuming as starting point that the rural as social representation refers to a variety of imaginings and meanings created and used by the various social actors to make sense of the experiences they assumed as rural, this article aims to analyze how representations of a rural lifestyle built and operated by a particular social group, neo-rural or new rural residents, take part ransformatively on the local social dynamics of the reception sites. This time, the focal group corresponds to neorural residents settled in a rural area of the municipality of Manizales (Caldas, Colombia). Accepting the premise that neoruralism expresses a change in the relationship between the individual and his biophysical-social environment, the presentation and discussion of results revolves around three main analytical axes: a) individual-natural environmentinteractions; b) individual-social framework interactions; and c) individual-space interactions, emphasizing its effects on the collective environment, beyond the purely individual level. The article finishes with some considerations about this type of studies in local, national and Latin American contexts. Asumiendo como punto de partida que lo rural como representación social remite a una multiplicidad de figuraciones y significaciones creadas y utilizadas por los diversos actores sociales para dar sentido a las vivencias por ellos mismos asumidas rurales, el artículo tiene como fin analizar cómo las representaciones de modo de vida rural construidas y operadas por un grupo social particular: neorrurales o nuevos habitantes del campo, intervienen, transformativamente, sobre la dinámica social local de los sitios de acogida. En esta oportunidad, el grupo focal corresponde a los neorrurales asentados en una zona rural del municipio de Manizales (Caldas, Colombia). Acogiendo la premisade que el neorruralismo expresa un cambio en las relaciones entre el individuo y su medio biofísico-social, la presentación y la discusión de resultados gira en torno a tres ejes analíticos principales: a) las interacciones individuo-entorno natural, b) las interacciones individuoentorno sociocomunitario y c) las interacciones individuo-espacio, enfatizando sus efectos sobre el ámbito colectivo, más allá del plano meramente individual. El artículo concluye con algunas consideraciones acerca de este tipo de estudios en contextos como el local, el nacional y el latinoamericano.ABSTRACTAssuming as starting point that the rural as social representation refers to a variety of imaginings and meanings created and used by the various social actors to make sense of the experiences they assumed as rural, this article aims to analyze how representations of a rural lifestyle built and operated by a particular social group, neo-rural or new rural residents, take part ransformatively on the local social dynamics of the reception sites. This time, the focal group corresponds to neorural residents settled in a rural area of the municipality of Manizales (Caldas, Colombia). Accepting the premise that neoruralism expresses a change in the relationship between the individual and his biophysical-social environment, the presentation and discussion of results revolves around three main analytical axes: a) individual-natural environmentinteractions; b) individual-social framework interactions; and c) individual-space interactions, emphasizing its effects on the collective environment, beyond the purely individual level. The article finishes with some considerations about this type of studies in local, national and Latin American contexts.

En su afán por crear las condiciones existenciales necesarias para alcanzar logros de vida acordes con las situaciones sociales actuales, los diversos grupos humanos, entre éstos los familiares, se ingenian diversas maneras para superar las adversidades. Estas maneras son denominadas por unos como estrategias de supervivencia y por otros como medios de vida. La primera es un marco explicativo que se apoya en la presunción de que las familias manejan un margen de libertad a partir del cual pueden formular como grupo sus propios cursos de acción -estrategias- incluso por encima de los que formulan sus miembros individualmente. La segunda se soporta en el enfoque Medios de Vida según el cual las familias toman decisiones y actúan a partir del conjunto de capacidades, activos (recursos tanto materiales como sociales y culturales) y actividades con que cuentan. El presente documento aborda de manera analítica estas dos propuestas.ABSTRACTIn their quest to create the conditions necessary to obtain life achievements inagreement with the current social situations, different human groups have come up with various ways to overcome adversity. These ways are called by some survival strategies and by others livelihoods. The first is an explanatory framework that is based on the assumption that families handle a margin of freedom from which they can, as a group, construct their own courses of action —strategies—even over those formulated individually by its members. The second approach is supported by the Livelihoods focus whereby families make decisions and act based on the set of capacities, assets (material, social and cultural resources) and activities available to them. This document analytically addresses these two proposals. En su afán por crear las condiciones existenciales necesarias para alcanzar logros de vida acordes con las situaciones sociales actuales, los diversos grupos humanos, entre éstos los familiares, se ingenian diversas maneras para superar las adversidades. Estas maneras son denominadas por unos como estrategias de supervivencia y por otros como medios de vida. La primera es un marco explicativo que se apoya en la presunción de que las familias manejan un margen de libertad a partir del cual pueden formular como grupo sus propios cursos de acción -estrategias- incluso por encima de los que formulan sus miembros individualmente. La segunda se soporta en el enfoque Medios de Vida según el cual las familias toman decisiones y actúan a partir del conjunto de capacidades, activos (recursos tanto materiales como sociales y culturales) y actividades con que cuentan. El presente documento aborda de manera analítica estas dos propuestas.ABSTRACTIn their quest to create the conditions necessary to obtain life achievements inagreement with the current social situations, different human groups have come up with various ways to overcome adversity. These ways are called by some survival strategies and by others livelihoods. The first is an explanatory framework that is based on the assumption that families handle a margin of freedom from which they can, as a group, construct their own courses of action —strategies—even over those formulated individually by its members. The second approach is supported by the Livelihoods focus whereby families make decisions and act based on the set of capacities, assets (material, social and cultural resources) and activities available to them. This document analytically addresses these two proposals.

Dowry is a common custom observed in South Asian countries. It has been a target of an opposition movement because it is assumed to be a root cause of women's mistreatment, for example, in the form of sex-selective abortion, girls' malnutrition, female infanticide, and domestic homicide called "dowry murder." Despite its alleged evil consequences and the legal ban or restrictions on it, the custom has been extended, and recently, the dowry amount seems to be increasing. However, there is little empirical evidence of dowry's effects. This study empirically investigates the effects of dowry on women's status in rural Pakistan. We conducted a unique survey in rural Punjab, Pakistan, to explore the marriage practices there and to answer the research question. Results show that a higher dowry amount enhances women’s status in the marital household. This implies that an outright ban on dowries does not necessarily improve women's welfare at this time.

This article explores the changing use and management of domestic space and socio-spatial relationships constructed in a Pakistani rural setting. It offers a case study which highlights the central position of domestic space as a residential and social unit in rural Pakistan. It discusses how domestic space is appropriated in multiple ways into a social unit through social practice. Given that changes in the physical structure of any place lead to negotiation of social relationships, it is shown how recent modifications in design and structure of houses are indicative of, and to some extent facilitate, social change in rural Pakistan.

In agricultural societies, adjusting land and labor according to changes of labor endowment that result from family life cycle events is premised on making full use of resources for each farming household and for the economy as a whole. This paper examines how and how well households in pre-modern Japan reallocated land and labor, using a population register covering 150 years from 1720–1870 for a village in the Tohoku region. We find that households reacted to equalize their production factors; land-scarce households tended to acquire or rent-in land and out-migrate their kin members, while land-abundant households tended to release or rent-out land, in-migrate kin members, or employ non-kin members. Estimates suggest that more than 80% of the surplus or deficit area of land was resolved if the household rented or "sold" land. We discuss a potential underlying mechanism; namely, that the village's collective responsibility for tax payment (murauke) motivated both individual households and the village as a whole to reallocate land and labor for the efficient use of resources.