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The study, characterization, observation, and quantification of plant root growth and root systems (Rhizometrics) has been and remains an important area of research in all disciplines of plant science. In the horticultural industry, a large portion of the crops grown annually are grown in pot culture. Root growth is a critical component in overall plant performance during production in containers, and therefore it is important to understand the factors that influence and/or possible enhance it. Quantifying root growth has varied over the last several decades with each method of quantification changing in its reliability of measurement and variation among the results. Methods such as root drawings, pin boards, rhizotrons, and minirhizotrons initiated the aptitude to measure roots with field crops, and have been expanded to container-grown plants. However, many of the published research methods are monotonous and time-consuming. More recently, computer programs have increased in use as technology advances and measuring characteristics of root growth becomes easier. These programs are instrumental in analyzing various root growth characteristics, from root diameter and length of individual roots to branching angle and topological depth of the root architecture. This review delves into the expanding technologies involved with expertly measuring root growth of plants in containers, and the advantages and disadvantages that remain.

Nutrient fluctuations are more a rule rather than an exception in the life of sessile organisms such as plants. Despite this constraint that adds up to abiotic and biotic stresses, plants are able to accomplish their life cycle thanks to an efficient signaling network that reciprocally controls nutrient acquisition and use with growth and development. The majority of nutrients are acquired by the root system where multiple local signaling pathways that rely on nutrient-sensing systems are implemented to direct root growth toward soil resources. Moreover, long-distance signaling plays an essential role in integrating nutrient availability at the whole-plant level and adjusting nutrient acquisition to plant growth requirements. By studying the signaling network for single mineral nutrients, several long-distance signals traveling between roots and shoots and taking a diversity of forms have been identified and are summarized here. However, the nutritional environment is multifactorial, adding a tremendous complexity for our understanding of the nutrient signaling network as a unique system. For instance, long-distance signals are expected to support this nutrient cross-talk in part, but the mechanisms are still largely unknown. Therefore, the involvement of possible long-distance signals as conveyers of nutrient cross-talk is discussed here together with approaches and strategies that are now considered to build a picture from the nutrient signaling puzzle.

Highlight Root hairs anchored maize roots to the sides of pore walls, helping root tips to penetrate soil at intermediate soil bulk densities, shown by comparing wild-type seedlings with hairless mutants., The physical role of root hairs in anchoring the root tip during soil penetration was examined. Experiments using a hairless maize mutant (Zea mays: rth3–3) and its wild-type counterpart measured the anchorage force between the primary root of maize and the soil to determine whether root hairs enabled seedling roots in artificial biopores to penetrate sandy loam soil (dry bulk density 1.0–1.5g cm−3). Time-lapse imaging was used to analyse root and seedling displacements in soil adjacent to a transparent Perspex interface. Peak anchorage forces were up to five times greater (2.5N cf. 0.5N) for wild-type roots than for hairless mutants in 1.2g cm−3 soil. Root hair anchorage enabled better soil penetration for 1.0 or 1.2g cm−3 soil, but there was no significant advantage of root hairs in the densest soil (1.5g cm−3). The anchorage force was insufficient to allow root penetration of the denser soil, probably because of less root hair penetration into pore walls and, consequently, poorer adhesion between the root hairs and the pore walls. Hairless seedlings took 33h to anchor themselves compared with 16h for wild-type roots in 1.2g cm−3 soil. Caryopses were often pushed several millimetres out of the soil before the roots became anchored and hairless roots often never became anchored securely.The physical role of root hairs in anchoring the root tip may be important in loose seed beds above more compact soil layers and may also assist root tips to emerge from biopores and penetrate the bulk soil.

Este trabalho teve por objetivo avaliar, em dois estádios de desenvolvimento, o crescimento do sistema radicular e a cinética de absorção de amônio das cultivares de arroz Agulha e Bico Ganga, procedentes do Estado do Maranhão. As plantas (25 e 50 dias de idade) cresceram em casa de vegetação, emsolução nutritiva, com quatro níveis de N (20, 40, 60 e 80 mg L-1). Os valores de Vmáx, K M e Cmín foram determinados empregando-se um processo gráfico-matemático. A cultivar Bico Ganga apre-sentou maiores valores de Vmáx e menores de Cmín, aos 25 e 50 dias de idade, nos níveis de 20 e 40 mg L-1 de N, enquanto em altos níveis de N (60 e 80 mg L-1), os maiores valores de Vmáx e menores de Cmín ocorreram na cultivar Agulha. Tanto aos 25 quanto aos 50 dias, a Bico Ganga apresentou maior área radicular, maior produção de matéria fresca e seca de raiz e parte aérea, e maior eficiência de acumulação de N e síntese de proteína na parte aérea. Esses resultados sugerem que a Bico Ganga, por ser uma cultivar local mais antiga que a Agulha, estaria melhor adaptada ao estresse nutricional em ambientes tropicais. A study was made on the patterns of root growth and the kinetics of N-uptake of the cultivars of tropical rice Agulha and Bico Ganga, from the Northeastern state of Maranhão, Brazil. Plants (25 and 50 days old) were grown in a greenhouse in nutrient solution. Four levels of N were used (20, 40, 60 and 80 mg L-1). Vmax, K M and Cmin were determined by a mathematical graphic process. Bico Ganga had the highest Vmax and the lowest Cmin, both at 25 and 50 days at 20 and 40 mg L-1 of N. However, at higher levels of N (60 and 80 mg L-1 ) the inverse was observed, Agulha had higher Vmax and lower Cmin. At 25 and 50 days Bico Ganga showed higher total root area and higher root dry and fresh weight. Also, Bico Ganga was more efficient in N accumulation and protein synthesis. As Bico Ganga is an older local variety than Agulha, it seems that those characteristics indicate a better adaptation of the former to the nutrient stress of the tropical environment were it has been grown.

Summary Our objective was to calibrate a model of the root system architecture on several Poaceae species and to assess its value to simulate several ‘integrated’ traits measured at the root system level: specific root length (SRL), maximum root depth and root mass. We used the model ArchiSimple, made up of sub-models that represent and combine the basic developmental processes, and an experiment on 13 perennial grassland Poaceae species grown in 1.5-m-deep containers and sampled at two different dates after planting (80 and 120 d). Model parameters were estimated almost independently using small samples of the root systems taken at both dates. The relationships obtained for calibration validated the sub-models, and showed species effects on the parameter values. The simulations of integrated traits were relatively correct for SRL and were good for root depth and root mass at the two dates. We obtained some systematic discrepancies that were related to the slight decline of root growth in the last period of the experiment. Because the model allowed correct predictions on a large set of Poaceae species without global fitting, we consider that it is a suitable tool for linking root traits at different organisation levels.