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In variable environments, habitats that are rich in resources often carry a higher risk of predation. As a result, natural selection should favour individuals that balance allocation of time to foraging versus avoiding predation through an optimal decision-making process that maximizes fitness. The behavioural trade-off between resource acquisition and risk avoidance is expected to be particularly acute during gestation and lactation, when the energetic demands of reproduction peak. Here, we investigated how reproductive female roe deer adjust their foraging activity and habitat use during the birth period to manage this trade-off compared with non-reproductive juveniles, and how parturition date constrains individual tactics of risk-resource management. Activity of reproductive females more than doubled immediately following parturition, when energy demand is highest. Furthermore, compared with non-reproductive juveniles, they increased their exposure to risk by using open habitat more during daytime and ranging closer to roads. However, these post-partum modifications in behaviour were particularly pronounced in late-parturient females who adopted a more risk-prone tactic, presumably to compensate for the growth handicap of their late-born offspring. In income breeders, individuals that give birth late may be constrained to trade risk avoidance for foraging during peak allocation to reproduction, with probable consequences for individual fitness. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Accurate heritability estimates for fitness‐related traits are required to predict an organism's ability to respond to global change. Heritability estimates are theoretically expected to be inflated if, due to limited dispersal, individuals that share genes are also likely to share similar environments. However, if relatives occupy similar environments due, at least partly, to genetic variation for habitat selection, then accounting for environmental similarity in quantitative genetic models may result in diminished heritability estimates in wild populations. This potential issue has been pointed out in the literature, but has not been evaluated by empirical studies.Here, we investigate whether environmental similarity among individuals can be partly explained by genetic variation for habitat selection, and how this link potentially blurs estimates for heritability in fitness‐related traits.Using intensive GPS monitoring, we quantified home‐range habitat composition for 293 roe deer inhabiting a heterogeneous landscape to assess environmental similarity. To investigate if environmental similarity might harbour genetic variation, we combined genome‐wide data in a quantitative genetic framework to evaluate genetic variation for home‐range habitat composition, which is partly the result of habitat selection at settlement. Finally, we explored how environmental similarity affects heritability estimates for behaviours related to the risk avoidance–resource acquisition trade‐off (i.e. being in open habitat and distance to roads) and proxies of individual performance (i.e. body mass and hind foot length). We found substantial heritability for home‐range habitat composition, with estimates ranging from 0.40 (proportion of meadows) to 0.85 (proportion of refuge habitat). Accounting for similarity in habitat composition between relatives decreased the heritability estimates for both behavioural and morphological traits (reduction ranging from 55% to 100% and from 22% to 41% respectively). As a consequence, only half of these heritability estimates remained significantly different from zero.Our results show that similar genotypes occupy similar environments, which could lead to heritable variation being incorrectly attributed to environmental effects. To accurately distinguish the sources of phenotypic variation and predict the ability of organisms to respond to global change, it is necessary to develop quantitative genetic studies investigating the mechanisms underpinning environmental similarity among relatives. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The timing of birth has a predominant influence on both the reproductive success of the mother and the life‐history trajectory of her offspring. Because early growth and survival are key drivers of population dynamics, there is an urgent need to understand how global change is affecting reproductive phenology and performance. However, identifying when and where birth occurs is often difficult in the wild due to the cryptic behaviour of females around parturition, although this information may also help managers to protect reproductive females and newborn against human disturbance. While several approaches to identify parturition based on movement metrics derived from GPS monitoring have previously been proposed, their performance has not been evaluated over a range of species with contrasted movement characteristics.Here, we present a novel approach to detect parturition by combining data on animal movements, activity rate and habitat use. Using machine learning approaches, we evaluated the relative and combined performance of each category of metrics in predicting parturition for three large herbivores with contrasted life histories: a hider‐type species, the roe deer Capreolus capreolus and two follower‐type species, the Mediterranean mouflon Ovis gmelini musimon × Ovis sp. and the Alpine ibex Capra ibex.We first showed that detection of parturition was much improved when birth‐related modifications in the habitat use and activity rate of the mother were considered, rather than relying on movement metrics only. We then demonstrated that our approach was highly successful (76%–100% of events correctly identified) in detecting parturition in both follower and hider species. Furthermore, our approach generated estimates for peak birth date and the proportion of parturient females that were comparable with those based on direct observations at the population scale. Finally, our approach outperformed the most commonly employed methods in the literature which generally failed to identify non‐reproductive females for the three studied species, and provided birth timing estimates that only poorly match the true parturition date.We suggest that by combining sources of information, we have developed a standardised methodological approach for inferring parturition in the wild, not only for large herbivores but also for any species where parturition induces marked behavioural changes in the mother. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Assessing the evolutionary potential of animal populations in the wild is crucial to understanding how they may respond to selection mediated by rapid environmental change (e.g. habitat loss and fragmentation). A growing number of studies have investigated the adaptive role of behaviour, but assessments of its genetic basis in a natural setting remain scarce. We combined intensive biologging technology with genome‐wide data and a pedigree‐free quantitative genetic approach to quantify repeatability, heritability and evolvability for a suite of behaviours related to the risk avoidance‐resource acquisition trade‐off in a wild roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) population inhabiting a heterogeneous, human‐dominated landscape. These traits, linked to the stress response, movement and space‐use behaviour, were all moderately to highly repeatable. Furthermore, the repeatable among‐individual component of variation in these traits was partly due to additive genetic variance, with heritability estimates ranging from 0.21 ± 0.08 to 0.70 ± 0.11 and evolvability ranging from 1.1% to 4.3%. Changes in the trait mean can therefore occur under hypothetical directional selection over just a few generations. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first empirical demonstration of additive genetic variation in space‐use behaviour in a free‐ranging population based on genomic relatedness data. We conclude that wild animal populations may have the potential to adjust their spatial behaviour to human‐driven environmental modifications through microevolutionary change. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although inter‐individual heterogeneity in many aspects of dispersal behaviour is widely reported, this key life‐history trait is predominantly modelled as a dichotomous state of philopatry versus dispersal. The increasing body of evidence for dispersal syndromes (i.e. a suite of correlated morphological, behavioural and life‐history traits associated with dispersal) implies substantial but, to date, undocumented individual heterogeneity in behavioural tactics during dispersal. Using a large sample (n = 154) of GPS monitored juvenile roe deer Capreolus capreolus, we evaluated among‐individual behavioural heterogeneity in dispersal tactics, and the individual and environmental drivers of these alternative tactics. We developed a sequential three‐stage decision tree based on space use stability, exploration events and the directionality of movement. We identified six discrete alternative behavioural tactics during the dispersal period which were characterised by different timing, amplitude and duration in movement: slightly less than half of the deer were sedentary, either 'strictly philopatric' or 'explorers', which subsequently settled on their natal range; around 40% dispersed ('classic dispersal'), of which, one in six subsequently aborted, moving back to their natal range ('aborted dispersal'); finally, around 15% expressed either a 'progressive dispersal' tactic, gradually moving away from their natal area to settle elsewhere, or a 'multi‐range' tactic. The propensity to express an alternative dispersal tactic was strongly influenced by an individual's local environment. In particular, when landscape heterogeneity, resource quality and human‐related disturbance in the natal range were low, individuals were 1) more likely to adopt the alternative tactics of either progressive dispersal or multi‐ranging, but 2) also more likely to abort their dispersal attempt. Our work indicates that natal dispersal is likely not a single uniform behaviour, but that individuals may adopt a variety of alternative movement tactics which are likely governed by different selection pressures, with potentially important impacts for population dynamics and functioning. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Wildlife populations are increasingly exposed to human-induced modifications of their habitats. To cope with anthropogenic stressors, animals can adjust their behaviour—for example, by shifting their activity to more sheltered habitats, or becoming more nocturnal. However, whether use of spatial and temporal adjustments in behaviour may regulate the endocrine response is poorly documented. Here, we analyzed faecal cortisol metabolites (FCMs) of wild roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) living in a human-dominated agro-ecosystem. Using Global Positioning System monitoring of 116 individuals, we assessed their spatial behaviour and tested whether proximity to anthropogenic structures (linear distance to built-up areas) and the use of refuge habitats (woodland and hedges) influenced FCM levels. In accordance with our predictions, individuals ranging closer to anthropogenic structures during daytime had higher FCM levels, but this relationship was buffered as use of refuge habitat increased. In addition, this link between proximity to anthropogenic structures and FCM levels disappeared when we analyzed spatial behaviour at night. Finally, FCM levels were higher when the ambient temperature was lower, and during years of low resource availability. Our results demonstrate that the stress levels of large mammals may be strongly influenced by their proximity to anthropogenic activities, but that these effects may be buffered by behavioural adjustments in terms of space use and circadian rhythm. Whereas most studies have focused on the influence of environmental heterogeneity, our analysis highlights the need to also consider the fine-scale spatial response of individuals when studying the hormonal response of wild animals to human disturbance. We emphasize the potential to mitigate this hormonal stress response, and its potential negative consequences on population dynamics, through the preservation or restoration of patches of refuge habitat in close proximity to human infrastructure. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dispersal is a key mechanism enabling species to adjust their geographic range to rapid global change. However, dispersal is costly and environmental modifications are likely to modify the cost–benefit balance of individual dispersal decisions, for example, by decreasing functional connectivity.Dispersal costs occur during departure, transience and settlement, and are levied in terms of energy, risk, time and lost opportunity, potentially influencing individual fitness. However, to the best of our knowledge, no study has yet quantified the energetic costs of dispersal across the dispersal period by comparing dispersing and philopatric individuals in the wild.Here, we employed animal‐borne biologgers on a relatively large sample (N = 105) of juvenile roe deer to estimate energy expenditure indexed using the vector of dynamic body acceleration and mobility (distance travelled) in an intensively monitored population in the south‐west of France. We predicted that energy expenditure would be higher in dispersers compared to philopatric individuals. We expected costs to be (a) particularly high during transience, (b) especially high in the more fragmented areas of the landscape and (c) concentrated during the night to avoid disturbance caused by human activity.There were no differences in energy expenditure between dispersers and philopatric individuals during the pre‐dispersal phase. However, dispersers expended around 22% more energy and travelled around 63% further per day than philopatric individuals during transience. Differences in energy expenditure were much less pronounced during the settlement phase. The costs of transience were almost uniquely confined to the dawn period, when dispersers spent 23% more energy and travelled 112% further than philopatric individuals. Finally, the energetic costs of transience per unit time and the total distance travelled to locate a suitable settlement range were higher in areas of high road density.Our results provide strong support for the hypothesis that natal dispersal is energetically costly and indicate that transience is the most costly part of the process, particularly in fragmented landscapes. Further work is required to link dispersal costs with fitness components so as to understand the likely outcome of further environmental modifications on the evolution of dispersal behaviour. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Context: Routine movements of large herbivores, often considered as ecosystem engineers, impact key ecological processes. Functional landscape connectivity for such species influences the spatial distribution of associated ecological services and disservices.Objectives: We studied how spatio-temporal variation in the risk-resource trade-off, generated by fluctuations in human activities and environmental conditions, influences the routine movements of roe deer across a heterogeneous landscape, generating shifts in functional connectivity at daily and seasonal time scales.Methods: We used GPS locations of 172 adult roe deer and step selection functions to infer landscape connectivity. In particular, we assessed the influence of six habitat features on fine scale movements across four biological seasons and three daily periods, based on variations in the risk-resource trade-off.Results: The influence of habitat features on roe deer movements was strongly dependent on proximity to refuge habitat, i.e. woodlands. Roe deer confined their movements to safe habitats during daytime and during the hunting season, when human activity is high. However, they exploited exposed open habitats more freely during night-time. Consequently, we observed marked temporal shifts in landscape connectivity, which was highest at night in summer and lowest during daytime in autumn. In particular, the onset of the autumn hunting season induced an abrupt decrease in landscape connectivity.Conclusions: Human disturbance had a strong impact on roe deer movements, generating pronounced spatio-temporal variation in landscape connectivity. However, high connectivity at night across all seasons implies that Europe’s most abundant and widespread large herbivore potentially plays a key role in transporting ticks, seeds and nutrients among habitats. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Dispersal is a key life-history trait governing the response of individuals, populations and species to changing environmental conditions. In the context of global change, it is therefore essential to better understand the respective role of condition-, phenotype- and genetic-dependent drivers of dispersal behaviour. Although the importance of immune function and pathogen infestation in determining patterns of dispersal is increasingly recognised, no study to our knowledge has yet investigated the influence of immune gene variability on dispersal behaviour. Here, we filled this knowledge gap by assessing whether individual heterozygosity at five immune gene loci (one from the Major histocompatibility complex and four from encoding Toll-like receptors) influences roe deer natal dispersal. We found that dispersal propensity was affected by immune gene diversity, suggesting potential pathogen-mediated selection through over-dominance. However, the direction of this effect differed between high and low quality individuals, suggesting that dispersal propensity is driven by two different mechanisms. In support of the condition-dependent dispersal hypothesis, dispersal propensity increased with increasing body mass and, among high quality individuals only (standardized body mass > 18 kg), with increasing immune gene diversity. However, among poor quality individuals, we observed the opposite pattern such that dispersal propensity was higher for individuals with lower immune gene diversity. We suggest that these poor quality individuals expressed an emergency dispersal tactic in an attempt to escape a heavily infested environment associated with poor fitness prospects. Our results have potentially important consequences in terms of population genetics and demography, as well as host-pathogen evolution. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Despite frequent exposure to disturbances or threats, some species seem to be successful in human-dominated landscapes. In order to better understand how these species respond to disturbance linked to human activities, we studied the immediate response of roe deer to playback experiments conducted in an agricultural landscape where human activities are omnipresent and hunting is frequent. During two periods of contrasted hunting risk, we performed playback experiments (with dog barks or tractor engine noises) with experimenters that were either stationary or walked towards the deer. We modelled the probability of fleeing immediately after the start of the experiment. The probability of fleeing was around 0.3 when experimenters were located 100 m away from the deer and did not move but was greater when the experimenters were initially closer to the animal or approached closer to the animal during the experiment. Surprisingly, the responses of roe deer did not vary between periods of contrasting risk or in relation to the type of sound played. This study provides experimental evidence of a high level of reactivity of this sedentary species when confronted with disturbance. We argue that this may partly explain its success in human-dominated environments, allowing it to exploit the rich feeding resources provided by agricultural landscapes in a relatively safe way. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Non-consumptive effects of predators result from the cost of responses to perceived risk. Prey modulate risk exposure through flexible habitat selection at multiple scales which, in interaction with landscape constraints, determines their use of risky habitats. Identifying the relative contributions of landscape constraints and habitat selection to risk exposure is a critical first step towards a mechanistic understanding of non-consumptive effects. Here, we provide an integrative multi-scale study of roe deer spatial responses to variable hunting pressure along a landscape gradient of open habitats and dispersed refuges. Between low-risk and high-risk periods, we investigated shifts in 1) home-range location, 2) probability of using risky habitats (between-habitat scale) and 3) distance to the nearest refuge (within-habitat scale). For 2) and 3), we disentangled the contributions of landscape constraints and habitat selection to risky habitat use. We found that when risk was high, roe deer did not shift their home-range, but generally decreased their use of risky habitats, and sometimes reduced their distance to cover (particularly older animals). There was a functional response in between-habitat selection, with animals living in more open landscapes responding more than those living in landscapes with more refuges. However, individuals living in more open landscapes avoided open risky habitat less. Finally, we found that among-individual variation in risk exposure was generally, but not always, minimized by habitat selection across gradients of landscape constraints. To our knowledge, this is the first study simultaneously documenting prey responses to risk at the within-habitat, between-habitat and home-range scales. Our results support the view that between-habitat selection acts at a higher hierarchical level than within-habitat selection, and provide a framework for disentangling the contributions of habitat selection and landscape constraints to risk exposure. Selection cannot always compensate for landscape constraints, indicating a need for further investigation of the processes underlying habitat selection. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Individual differences in behavior may strongly shape life-history trajectories. However, few empirical studies to date have investigated the link between behavioral traits and fitness, especially in wild populations. We measured the impact of coping style in female roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) on early survival of their offspring. Specifically, we expected offspring of proactive mothers, which should be more mobile and aggressive, to survive better than those of reactive females, which should be more passive and react less in stressful contexts. To test this prediction, we accounted for confounding effects of variation in early survival linked to habitat heterogeneity, as we also expected bed-site selection to impact fawn survival. Fawn survival was highly dependent on the interaction between habitat use and the coping style of the mother. As expected, fawns of proactive mothers survived better in open habitats. However, unexpectedly, fawns of reactive mothers had the highest survival in closed habitats. Our findings provide clear evidence that interindividual differences in the coping style of the mother can markedly impact early offspring survival and, thereby, female fitness, in wild populations of mammals. Moreover, we provide evidence that fitness consequences of copying styles are habitat-dependent, providing a possible mechanism for the maintenance of within-population variation in behavior. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Although theoretical studies have predicted a link between individual multilocus heterozygosity and dispersal, few empirical studies have investigated the effect of individual heterozygosity on dispersal propensity or distance. We investigated this link using measures of heterozygosity at 12 putatively neutral microsatellite markers and natal dispersal behaviour in three contrasting populations of European roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus), a species displaying pre-saturation condition-dependent natal dispersal. We found no effect of individual heterozygosity on either dispersal propensity or dispersal distance. Average heterozygosity was similar across the three studied populations, but dispersal propensity and distance differed markedly among them. In Aurignac, dispersal propensity and distance were positively related to individual body mass, whereas there was no detectable effect of body mass on dispersal behaviour in Chizé and Trois Fontaines. We suggest that we should expect both dispersal propensity and distance to be greater when heterozygosity is lower only in those species where dispersal behaviour is driven by density-dependent competition for resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Natal dispersal is defined as the movement between the natal range and the site of first breeding and is one of the most important processes in population dynamics. The choice an individual makes between dispersal and philopatry may be condition dependent, influenced by either phenotypic attributes and/or environmental factors., Interindividual variability in dispersal tactics has profound consequences for population dynamics, particularly with respect to metapopulation maintenance. A better understanding of the mechanisms underlying this variability is thus of primary interest., We investigated the ranging behaviour of 60 juvenile European roe deer, Capreolus capreolus, monitored with GPS collars for 1 year prior to their first reproduction, from 2003 to 2010 in South- West France. Dispersal occurs across a spatial continuum so that dividing individuals into two categories (dispersers vs. philopatric) may lead to information loss. Therefore, to investigate condition-dependent dispersal more accurately, we developed an individual-based measure of dispersal distance, which took into account interindividual variation in ranging behaviour. We assessed the influence of body mass, the degree of habitat heterogeneity and sex on dispersal initiation date, dispersal propensity and distance., The overall population dispersal rate was 0·34, with a mean ± SD linear distance between natal and post-dispersal home ranges of 12·3 ± 10·5 km. Dispersal distances followed a classical leptokurtic distribution. We found no sex bias in either dispersal rate or distance. Forest animals dispersed less than those living in more heterogeneous habitats. Heavier individuals dispersed with a higher probability, earlier and further than lighter individuals. Our individual-based standardised dispersal distance increased linearly with body mass, with some suggestion of a body mass threshold of 14 kg under which no individual dispersed., Natal dispersal in roe deer was thus dependent on both phenotypic attributes and environmental context. Our results suggest that population connectivity can be altered by a change in average body condition and is likely higher in the rich and heterogeneous habitats typical of modern day agricultural landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Digestive plasticity, which refers to changes in digestive features due to changes in both internal and external environmental conditions, is a crucial factor for understanding the ability of species to cope with environmental changes. In Europe, agricultural intensification and the loss of forests have been major challenges for original forest dwellers, however some species, such as the European roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus), have been able to successfully colonize these new habitats. In this work, we investigated the adaptation of some digestive features of roe deer to the agricultural landscapes. We assessed whether changes in local landscape structure influenced the mass of both reticulorumen (RR) and distal fermentation chamber (DFC) of 47 juvenile and adult roe deer inhabiting an agro-ecosystem in southwest France. Woodland cover had a clear effect on diet quality (estimated by the rate of gas production of digestive contents) and DFC weight of animals. In fact, deer from the most forested landscapes showed heavier DFCs and fed on poorer quality diet (lower gas production) than their counterparts from the most open landscapes. RR mass was less influenced by the landscape openness, being the age of animals the main factor for understanding the variations of this digestive feature in our study area. We can conclude that colonizing agricultural landscapes increases the access to highly energetic and digestive resources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Understanding how patterns of habitat selection vary in relation to landscape structure is essential to predict ecological responses of species to global change and inform management. We investigated behavioural plasticity in habitat selection of roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus) in relation to variable habitat availability across a heterogeneous agricultural landscape at the home range and landscape scales. As expected, woodland was heavily selected, but we found no functional response for this habitat, i.e. no shift in habitat selection with changing habitat availability, possibly due to the presence of hedgerows which were increasingly selected as woodlands were less abundant. Hedgerows may thus function as a substitutable habitat for woodlands by providing roe deer with similar resources. We observed a functional response in the use of hedgerows, implying some degree of landscape complementation between hedgerows and open habitats, which may in part compensate for lower woodland availability. We also expected selection for woodland to be highest at the wider spatial scale, especially when this habitat was limiting. However, our results did not support this hypothesis, but rather indicated a marked influence of habitat composition, as both the availability and distribution of resources conditioned habitat selection. There was no marked between-sex difference in the pattern of habitat selection at either scale or between seasons at the landscape scale, however, within the home range, selection did differ between seasons. We conclude that landscape structure has a marked impact on roe deer habitat selection in agricultural landscapes through processes such as landscape complementation and supplementation. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The influence of landscape structure and host diet on parasite load of wildlife is still largely unknown. We studied a roe deer ( Capreolus capreolus) population in a fragmented agricultural landscape in southern France to explore the relationship of gastrointestinal nematode load with spleen mass (to index immunocompetence), faecal nitrogen (to index diet quality), landscape structure and age of 33 hunt-harvested roe deer. Gastrointestinal worm counts were negatively related to faecal nitrogen and spleen mass, explaining respectively 24.7% and 9.2% of the observed variability in parasite load. Landscape structure did not appear to have a direct influence on gastrointestinal worm counts, but since animals from more open areas have a diet that is richer in nitrogen, its influence may be indirect. In conclusion, in the study area, the colonisation of the agricultural landscape does not seem to have increased the risk of gastrointestinal nematode parasitism for roe deer, possibly because access to high-quality food enhances immunocompetence. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The aim of this study was to assess the accuracy of GPS 3300 to predict active (feeding, moving) and inactive (bedded, standing) behaviours in European roe deer. Observed activity of three tame roe deer was correlated with the three variables provided by the activity sensors of their collars (normalised for each individual) using discriminant analyses. The best model discriminated correctly 84% of the 'active' time intervals (defined as roe deer spending at least 30% of the time active) and 97% of inactive ones. We tested for consistency with movements using 11 wild roe deer, six living in a forest and five in an open habitat. As expected, wild deer identified as inactive (sensors) were mostly immobile (GPS locations, 831 records of 1096), whereas deer known to be moving were mostly classified as active (493 of 758 records). The records classified as inactive but moving (24% of inactive records or 35% of moving records) can indicate short distance displacement, erroneous detection of movement, or moving without neck movements. The records classified as active but immobile (46% of active ones, 33% of immobile ones) can represent feeding on a small patch without detectable movements. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The article focuses on a study that investigated whether the capture and handling of roe deer Capreolus capreolus, a medium-sized ungulate, modified its space use, activity and habitat use immediately following release. It cites the effect of capture stress on mortality, biological or physiological parameters and reproduction. It mentions the approach used by the researchers to study the immediate, short-term effects of capture on the spatial behaviour of roe deer. It details the impact of landscape structure on the degree of post-capture homerange displacement.

In this study, we sought to understand how landscape structure affects roe deer movements within their home-range in a heterogeneous and fragmented agricultural system of south-western France. We analysed the movements of 20 roe deer fitted with GPS collars which recorded their locations every 2-6 h over several months (mean = 9 months). Based on empirical observations and previous studies of roe deer habitat use, we hypothesised that roe deer should avoid buildings and roads, move preferentially along valley bottoms and through the more wooded areas of the landscape. To test these hypotheses we paired each observed movement step with 10 random ones. Using conditional logistic regression, we modelled a step selection function, which represents the probability of selecting a given step as a function of these landscape variables. The selectedmodel indicated thatmovements were influenced by all the tested landscape features, but not always in the predicted direction: our results suggested that roe deer tend to avoid buildings, roads, valley bottoms and possibly the more wooded areas (although the latter result should be interpreted with caution, as it may be influenced by a bias in the rate of GPS fix acquisition in woods). The distances to buildings and to roads were the most influential variables in the model, suggesting that the avoidance of potential sources of disturbancemay be a key factor in determining ranging behaviour of roe deer in human dominated landscapes. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

[Display omitted] • We studied the parasite community and population structures from sheep and roe deer. • Generalist parasite species dominated the nemabiomes of sheep but also roe deer. • The presence of livestock may have modified drastically the nemabiome of roe deer. • There was high circulation of nematodes among sheep and roe deer populations at a regional scale. The growth of livestock farming and the recent expansion of wild ungulate populations in Europe favor opportunities for direct and/or indirect cross-transmission of pathogens. Comparatively few studies have investigated the epidemiology of gastro-intestinal nematode parasites, an ubiquitous and important community of parasites of ungulates, at the wildlife/livestock interface. In this study, we aimed to assess the influence of livestock proximity on the gastrointestinal nematode community of roe deer in a rural landscape located in southern France. Using ITS-2 rDNA nemabiome metabarcoding on fecal larvae, we analysed the gastrointestinal nematode communities of roe deer and sheep. In addition, we investigated Haemonchus contortus nad4 mtDNA diversity to specifically test parasite circulation among domestic and wild host populations. The dominant gastrointestinal nematode species found in both the roe deer and sheep were generalist species commonly found in small ruminant livestock (e.g. H. contortus), whereas the more specialised wild cervid nematode species (e.g. Ostertagia leptospicularis) were only present at low frequencies. This is in marked contrast with previous studies that found the nemabiomes of wild cervid populations to be dominated by cervid specialist nematode species. In addition, the lack of genetic structure of the nad4 mtDNA of H. contortus populations between host species suggests circulation of gastrointestinal nematodes between roe deer and sheep. The risk of contact with livestock only has a small influence on the nemabiome of roe deer, suggesting the parasite population of roe deer has been displaced by generalist livestock parasites due to many decades of sheep farming, not only for deer grazing close to pastures, but also at a larger regional scale. We also observed some seasonal variation in the nemabiome composition of roe deer. Overall, our results demonstrate significant exchange of gastrointestinal nematodes between domestic and wild ungulates, with generalist species spilling over from domestic ungulates dominating wild cervid parasite communities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The mortality risk from hunting/predation should increase animals'' vigilance and modify their selection of feeding sites. This risk may thus be costly if vigilance interferes with feeding and/or if animals select poorer but safer feeding sites. We observed the vigilance behaviour of roe deer, Capreolus capreolus, feeding in a fragmented landscape during and outside the hunting season and compared food availability and local landscape features at these feeding sites with random paired sites. Roe deer spent more time vigilant during the hunting season than outside it. During the hunting season, vigilance decreased as the woodland extent within an 800m radius increased, but this was not the case outside the hunting season. Vigilance decreased with increasing distance to houses, both during and outside the hunting season. When food is abundant, interference with feeding may be low because animals can simultaneously process food (chewing) and be vigilant. During the hunting season, the total time spent vigilant while chewing increased with increasing food abundance to a lesser extent than outside the hunting season, suggesting a higher level of costly exclusive vigilance during the hunting season. Outside the hunting season animals selected feeding sites that provided more food, but during the hunting season, as risk (proximity to houses) was positively correlated with food availability, animals no longer selected feeding sites on the basis of food availability. Taken together, our results indicate that roe deer trade off risk avoidance for food availability in hunted populations. [Copyright &y& Elsevier]