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Satellite imagery has become a major source for identifying and mapping terrestrial and planetary landforms. However, interpretating landforms and their significance, especially in changing environments, may still be questionable. Consequently, ground truth to check training models, especially in mountainous areas, can be problematic. This paper outlines a decimal format, [dLL], for latitude and longitude geolocation that can be used for model interpretation and validation and in data sets. As data have positions in space and time, [dLL] defined points, as for images, can be associated with metadata as nodes. Together with vertices, metadata nodes help build 'information surfaces' as part of the Digital Earth. This paper examines aspects of the Critical Zone and data integration via the FAIR data principles, data that are; findable, accessible, interoperable and re-usable. Mapping and making inventories of rock glacier landforms are examined in the context of their geomorphic and environmental significance and the need for geolocated ground truth. Terrestrial examination of rock glaciers shows them to be predominantly glacier-derived landforms and not indicators of permafrost. Remote-sensing technologies used to track developing rock glacier surface features show them to be climatically melting glaciers beneath rock debris covers. Distinguishing between glaciers, debris-covered glaciers and rock glaciers over time is a challenge for new remote sensing satellites and technologies and shows the necessity for a common geolocation format to report many Earth surface features. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

This note suggests that decimal latitude/longitude [dLL] locations should be used to identify features of interest, landforms, sample and investigations sites, in an 'information landscape' provided by the geomorphological literature. All the information associated with a labelled, or tagged, geolocation should be available for examination as part of information landscapes that can be explored and represented in books, papers and other publications. This note also outlines the 'open' and FAIR data that are findable, accessible, interoperable and reusable and how the principles can be used to better explain landscapes, especially in the mountain landscape domain. Tors and rock glaciers illustrate [dLL] geolocation to identify sites and inform fieldwork and literature searching. Any [dLL]‐specified location is an identifying label, as are names given to landforms and toponyms. Two letters (digraph) are used as landform labels: TO for tors and RG for rock glaciers. Citations, (author–date–title–source) attributions, are also labels. The note shows how these attributions can be linked to [dLL] geolocations specifying locations in time and space and in the literature. The addition of [dLL] will facilitate future literature searches and modelling to explore 'unknowns' in the landscape, and this paper suggests ways in which this can be achieved, including geoheritage and geotourism. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Landsystem relationships between glaciers and rock debris supply in a mountain landscape domain, (), are described. Decimal latitude-longitude [dLL] geolocations are used to identify features and transects in an information landscape. Geo-located features are coded, enabling transects between a 1976 expedition and 2019 Google Earth imagery to be compared. Rock debris is progressively added to 1-3 km long glaciers which become debris-covered. Cirque glaciers eventually assume rock glacier (RG) forms when supraglacial debris loads are high. Some rock glacier snouts reach main valley floors and still advance over meadows. This behaviour is attributed to high geomorphic activity producing rock detritus and transport to glaciers in the early Little Ice Age. The advances of rock glacier snouts are a consequence of thinning; low-angle glaciers still moving beneath debris-covered glaciers (GLd) covers. Persistent melt pools continue to develop within the surface debris cover of glaciers and rock glaciers and expose glacier ice. All the rock glaciers are below the regional snowline and permafrost can be discounted for rock glacier formation. Scree slope (SS) development may ultimately be sufficient to cover bare glacier ice moving from a glacier (GL) to debris-covered glacier (GLd) to rock glacier (RG). Reverse slopes in the debris at the foot of screes mark the mass continuum of glacier flow below the debris cover, not the 'rooting zone' of a permafrost-derived RG. Scree slopes themselves show no evidence of rock glacier-like flow. A simple glacier ice-debris transport continuum model is sufficient and necessary for rock glacier formation and flow. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

A valley floor rock glacier in Nautárdalur, eastern Tröllaskagi, northern Iceland, has been investigated since the 1970s. Adjacent valleys are also examined as mountain landsystems. The methodology identifies 'landform elements' (features evident on slopes) on transects that can be identified and mapped from Google Earth imagery. Transects can be compared to show similarities and differences between slopes and valleys and can be used to trace debris and ice/snow flow paths within landsystems. The paper confirms that a glacier ice core is present throughout the Nautárdalur rock glacier. Traces of glacier activity can be found in some neighbouring small valleys but where rock glaciers are not present. Previous field observations, when coupled to current Google Earth imagery, indicate glacier ice formation and deformation over the past 200 years. The quantities and timing of weathered debris from headwall cliffs were sufficient to partly cover small glaciers, thus forming rock glaciers in some, but not all, valleys. The landsystem and transect approach thus indicate glacier origins for the rock glaciers identified. No evidence for 'permafrost creep' in scree slopes that might produce valley-side rock glaciers has been found. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Field observations, map analysis and the use of terrestrial and aerial photography and Google Earth show that the Gruben rock glacier, discussed in the literature since 1974, does contain a glacier ice core. Mapped as bare glacier ice at the time of the first map, about AD 1850, subsequent cover by debris from the surrounding cliffs has preserved what is now a slow-moving glacier core beneath a debris cover about 0.5 m thick. Formerly, the steeper and thicker glacier moved debris to the snout much more rapidly than at the present flow rates. The, adjacent, and once co-flowing, tongue of glacier ice was sparsely covered and has down-wasted substantially since the Little Ice Age (ca AD 1850) maximum. Surface down-wasting, surface lakes, ice exposures, and snout recession indicate that the rock glacier's volume is reducing by wastage of the glacier ice core. This reduction in thickness and surface slope over the last 150 years is sufficient to explain all the observed phenomena in the Gruben basin and present-day low (<1 ma−1) rock glacier surface velocities. Further exposures of glacier ice in the rock glacier are expected with increasing 'climatic warming'. These findings suggest that the 'permafrost' origin of rock glaciers should be re-evaluated. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Geomorphological mapping records 'snapshots', making it difficult to investigate change and sensitivity in changing environments. The high resolution now available in Google Earth (GE) permits re-investigation of landscape features/landforms previously recorded in the literature or mapped. Transects across geomorphologically interesting locations can be provided with decimal degree WGS 84 locations and bearings via GE. Landform elements are identified, located and coded onto transects that summarise geomorphological information. Transects crossing rock cliffs, scree slopes, snowpatches, protalus ramparts, 'vanishing' glaciers, moraines and rock glaciers are investigated using GE on the Pico de Posets in the Spanish Pyrenees. Observations of geometry/form, materials and processes involved in ice and sediment movement are linked to the Randolph Glacier Inventory and map records. The transect mapping shows that accumulated weathered rock debris insulated a remnant Little Ice Age glacier that formed a lateral moraine and a contiguous rock glacier as the glacier wasted down. Landforms previously considered to indicate permafrost are shown not to do so. Glacigenic formation of moraines, protalus rampart and rock glaciers provides the simplest explanation for their origin. • Uses Google Earth imagery to produce a landsystem of mountain slopes • Examines landforms around the Pic de Posets in a landsystem approach • Represents landform elements relating to movement of materials over time • Interprets a rock glacier system as debris supply onto decaying glacier [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]