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Previous work with simulations of oceanographic high-frequency (HF) radars has identified possible improvements when using maximum likelihood estimation (MLE) for direction of arrival; however, methods for determining the number of emitters (here defined as spatially distinct patches of the ocean surface) have not realized these improvements. Here we describe and evaluate the use of the likelihood ratio (LR) for emitter detection, demonstrating its application to oceanographic HF radar data. The combined detection–estimation methods MLE-LR are compared with multiple signal classification method (MUSIC) and MUSIC parameters for SeaSonde HF radars, along with a method developed for 8-channel systems known as MUSIC-Highest. Results show that the use of MLE-LR produces similar accuracy, in terms of the RMS difference and correlation coefficients squared, as previous methods. We demonstrate that improved accuracy can be obtained for both methods, at the cost of fewer velocity observations and decreased spatial coverage. For SeaSondes, accuracy improvements are obtained with less commonly used parameter sets. The MLE-LR is shown to be able to resolve simultaneous closely spaced emitters, which has the potential to improve observations obtained by HF radars operating in complex current environments. Significance Statement: We identify and test a method based on the likelihood ratio (LR) for determining the number of signal sources in observations subject to direction finding with maximum likelihood estimation (MLE). Direction-finding methods are used in broad-ranging applications that include radar, sonar, and wireless communication. Previous work suggests accuracy improvements when using MLE, but suitable methods for determining the number of simultaneous signal sources are not well known. Our work shows that the LR, when combined with MLE, performs at least as well as alternative methods when applied to oceanographic high-frequency (HF) radars. In some situations, MLE and LR obtain superior resolution, where resolution is defined as the ability to distinguish closely spaced signal sources. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

While land-based high-frequency (HF) radars are the only instruments capable of resolving both the temporal and spatial variability of surface currents in the coastal ocean, recent high-resolution views suggest that the coastal ocean is more complex than presently deployed radar systems are able to reveal. This work uses a hybrid system, having elements of both phased arrays and direction finding radars, to improve the azimuthal resolution of HF radars. Data from two radars deployed along the U.S. East Coast and configured as 8-antenna grid arrays were used to evaluate potential direction finding and signal, or emitter, detection methods. Direction finding methods such as maximum likelihood estimation generally performed better than the well-known multiple signal classification (MUSIC) method given identical emitter detection methods. However, accurately estimating the number of emitters present in HF radar observations is a challenge. As MUSIC's direction-of-arrival (DOA) function permits simple empirical tests that dramatically aid the detection process, MUSIC was found to be the superior method in this study. The 8-antenna arrays were able to provide more accurate estimates of MUSIC's noise subspace than typical 3-antenna systems, eliminating the need for a series of empirical parameters to control MUSIC's performance. Code developed for this research has been made available in an online repository. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

For direction-finding high-frequency (HF) radar systems, the correct separation of backscattered spectral energy due to Bragg resonant waves from that due to more complex double-scattering represents a critical first step toward attaining accurate estimates of surface currents from the range-dependent radar backscatter. Existing methods to identify this 'first order' region of the spectra, generally sufficient for lower-frequency radars and low-velocity or low-surface gravity wave conditions, are more likely to fail in higher-frequency systems or locations with more variable current, wave, or noise regimes, leading to elevated velocity errors. An alternative methodology is presented that uses a single and globally relevant smoothing length scale, careful pretreatment of the spectra, and marker-controlled watershed segmentation, an image processing technique, to separate areas of spectral energy due to surface currents from areas of spectral energy due to more complex scattering by the wave field or background noise present. Applied to a number of HF radar datasets with a range of operating frequencies and characteristic issues, the new methodology attains a higher percentage of successful first-order identification, particularly during complex current and wave conditions. As operational radar systems continue to expand to more systematically cover areas of high marine traffic, close approaches to ports and harbors, or offshore energy installations, use of this type of updated methodology will become increasingly important to attain accurate current estimates that serve both research and operational interests. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The occurrence, drivers, and implications of small-scale O(2-5) km diameter coherent vortices, referred to as submesoscale eddies, over the inner shelf south of Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, are examined using high-frequency (HF), radar-based, high-resolution (400 m) observations of surface currents. Within the 300 km2 study area, eddies occurred at rates of 1 and 4 day−1 in winter and summer, respectively. Most were less than 5 h in duration, smaller than 4 km in diameter, and rotated less than once over their lifespan; 60% of the eddies formed along the eastern edge of study area, adjacent to Wasque Shoal, and moved westward into the interior, often with relative vorticity greater than f. Eddy generation was linked to vortex stretching on the ebb and flood tide as well as the interaction of the spatially variable tide and the wind-driven currents; however, these features had complex patterns of surface divergence and stretching. Eddies located away from Wasque Shoal were related to the movement of wind-driven surface currents, as wind direction controlled where eddies formed as well as density effects. Using an analysis of particles advected within the radar-based surface currents, the observed eddies were found to be generally leaky, losing 60%-80% of particles over their lifespan, but still more retentive than the background flow. As a result, the combined translation and rotational effects of the observed eddies were an important source of lateral exchange for surface waters over the inner shelf. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

The calibration and validation of a novel approach to remotely sense surface winds using land-based high-frequency (HF) radar systems are described. Potentially available on time scales of tens of minutes and spatial scales of 2-3 km for wide swaths of the coastal ocean, HF radar-based surface wind observations would greatly aid coastal ocean planners, researchers, and operational stakeholders by providing detailed real-time estimates and climatologies of coastal winds, as well as enabling higher-quality short-term forecasts of the spatially dependent wind field. Such observations are particularly critical for the developing offshore wind energy community. An autonomous surface vehicle was deployed within the Massachusetts Wind Energy Area, located south of Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, for one month, collecting wind observations that were used to test models of wind-wave spreading and HF radar energy loss, thereby empirically relating radar-measured power to surface winds. HF radar-based extractions of the remote wind speed had accuracies of 1.4 m s−1 for winds less than 7 m s−1, within the optimal range of the radar frequency used. Accuracies degraded at higher winds due to low signal-to-noise ratios in the returned power and poor resolution of the model. Pairing radar systems with a range of transmit frequencies with adjustments of the extraction model for additional power and environmental factors would resolve many of the errors observed. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]