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Approximately 300 Australian users and non-users of the biomedical computerized data base, MEDLARS, were surveyed by mailed questionnaire in an attempt to determine the needs of present and potential users of the system and their prior experiences with computerized as well as other information services. Results of the survey reveal: (1) an extensive under-use of medical information systems due to a lack of awareness of their availability, (2) inadequate local library services, and (3) an inadequate interlibrary loan network. Recommendations include improvement of the interlibrary loan network, selection and adoption of a minimum core of titles as a hospital library standard, development of short term training programs for hospital librarians, and the appointment of field officers to function as disseminators of information on information services. Appended are the position paper from which the study was generated, a brief history of the development of medical information services, and the survey instrument used. (STS) are the position medical information services, and the survey instruments used. (STS) Appended are the position medical information services, and the survey instruments used. (SJS)

This paper reports a survey of children's interests at two ages. Data was obtained from a questionnaire administered to 200 grade 1 and 180 grade 7 boys and girls in ten different primary schools in the Perth, Australia area. Children were administered a 10-question questionnaire designed to measure leisure and academic interests. First grade children were administered the questionnaire individually; seventh grade children were tested in groups. Sex of pupils was not found to be an important determiner of interests, except for such culturally stereotyped activities as cooking, dancing and playing football. Seventh grade girls, however, indicated a greater interest in reading than boys at this level. There was a moderate degree of similarity in levels of interest in the various general areas nominated by grade 1 and grade 7 pupils, but the variable of age presented a much larger difference in specific interests. This was most noticeable in changes in academic interest preferences at school from reading and writing at grade 1 to craft and sport at grade 7. However, academic areas were not popular in leisure hours at either grade level. Possible explanations and implications of the findings are discussed. (Author/SB)

A theory of interaction between college students and college faculty based on similarity in style of intellectual functioning was proposed, instruments to measure student and teacher characteristics were developed, and the relationship between achievement and intellectual style similarity was studied. Studies that focus on the impacts of physical, social, and intellectual environments on the interaction between student and teacher are reviewed. Two scales were developed to measure cognitive style: Student Goal Orientation scales and Staff Role Orientation scales. Pilot testing of the scales and reliability, validity, and other measures of their quality are described. The study was conducted with 287 students and 30 staff of a university physics department. It was found that the greater the degree of similarity in student goal orientation between student and lecturer, the greater was the student's achievement, as measured by that lecturer. Additionally, there was no relationship between similarity in staff role orientation between student and lecturer and that student's achievement, as measured by that lecturer. Implications of the findings for further research and for tertiary teaching are considered. Study instruments and related articles are appended. (SW)

A study was conducted at the University of New South Wales in Australia to determine what happened to applicants who deferred enrollment in 1975 and did not enroll in 1976 at the university. Additionally, information was sought about what deferring applicants thought they had gained from deferment and their opinions generally about the advantages and disadvantages of deferring. A questionnaire was mailed to deferring applicants, and further information was obtained from the admissions office and the computer printout of offers made by the Metropolitan Universities Admissions Centre. Based on a response rate of 63 percent, it was determined that about 74 percent of respondents were undertaking some form of postsecondary education. Analysis of findings is presented under three subheadings: students attending other universities, students attending any other postsecondary institution (including nursing), and persons not enrolled in any institution in 1976. Data indicate that most of the deferring applicants do continue to enroll in some form of higher education. Deferrent policy and practices at the university are discussed, and a sample questionnaire is appended. (SW)

This study attempted to determine how much parents were involved in Western Australian secondary schools and how satisfied they were with their involvement. Subjects included almost 2,000 families with children in one of sixteen secondary schools that were a sample of schools of differing sizes, in several types of communities in both rural and metropolitan locations. Subjects completed questionnaires brought home from school by children. Results indicated that scarcely any parents believed there was too much parent involvement in secondary schools. Only a small minority were seeking greater influence over school decision-making. Less than a quarter reported attending a parents' or citizens' meeting in 1977. More than 70 percent of parents said they were satisfied with the way the school kept them informed. Few parents wanted more use of school facilities. Although half the parents were willing to help at school, only a quarter had done so. Two schools in less affluent neighborhoods had low parental involvement, and parents in these districts wanted more involvement. The two schools with the most parental involvement were an affluent metropolitan high school and a school in a large country town. There was no evidence parental involvement varied with school size. (Author/JM)

The major focus of interest in the present research is the question of congruence between parental and school attitudes toward issues of authority and freedom. It was hypothesized that the child's adjustment to his/her particular type of classroom (either open or traditional) would be affected by whether he/she came from a family which shared broadly "open" or "traditional" attitudes toward discipline and control systems and had a similar philosophy about the way in which school learning ideally takes place. Variables relating to the learner and his/her background were also investigated, particularly in regard to I.Q., sex, and some of the attributes comprising adjustment. Several additional hypotheses were developed and explored. The sample consisted of 227 boys and girls, 9 to 12 years of age, who were pupils in three open and five traditional fifth and sixth grade level classrooms from three different primary schools in the Sydney, Australia, suburban area. A parent attitude questionnaire, included in Appendix One, was devised for this study and was used in conjunction with teacher ratings, school records, standardized test data and the Classroom Observation Schedule. Results are discussed. (Author/RH)

Both structured and free response questionnaires were given to 600 Australian children (100 each of 6-, 7-, and 8-year-old boys and girls) on perceptions of their parents. The free response questionnaire asked children to complete sentences beginning with the phrase "Mothers are" or the phrase "Fathers are." The structured questionnaire consisted of 37 questions to which the children answered either M(Mother) or F(Father), depending on which parent they associated with the question. Content analysis of the children's statements was based on 12 of the 33 categories developed by Livesley and Bromley. Large discrepancies were found between the results for the two questionnaires. In particular, the structured data overemphasized the importance of negative characteristics which did not appear to be salient in the free response data. Other findings were: Two of the 15 categories, Positive Evaluation and General Personality Attributes, accounted for more than half of all the children's responses. Four categories which describe more peripheral aspects of persons--Social Roles, Appearance, Physical Condition, and Effect Upon and Relations With Others--accounted for 30% of the total responses. Results are also reported on sex differences and age differences in perception of fathers and of mothers. It was concluded that the free response technique has more validity as a measure of parent perception. (Author/SS)

This paper describes and reports on the evaluation of aspects of three preschool programs in the Bidwell Community School, New South Wales, Australia. A home-based preschool program, a sessional preschool-centered program, and a mixed, part sessional and part home-based program were made available for children and their parents. With the aim of identifying outcomes associated with varying degrees of parental involvement, evaluation activities were focused on the extent and quality of parental involvement in the programs and on some aspects of the children's development. Data were collected across three school terms through (1) teacher rating schedules on child/mother behavior; (2) teacher interviews with mothers about program expectations; (3) teachers' impressions of mothers' participation over the three term period; and (4) extended interviews with mothers. Further, teachers' perceptions of children's characteristics on six dimensions were recorded. Among the results, mothers rated the preparation for school function of the preschool as their major concern. Changes in teachers' perceptions of individual children over the school-year indicate that teachers felt that some progress had been made in socializing the children. Mothers of children in the mixed program noted a higher developmental level in their children than did other mothers. Appended materials consist of program planning and evaluation documents. (Author/RH)

After brief historical and demographic information on Australia's changing societal patterns, this paper discusses some recent research in South Australia related to the expectations of parents and early childhood teachers concerning the purposes of preschooling and early schooling. A questionnaire, designed for both parents and teachers, was sent to a total of 250 parents and 50 early childhood teachers from metropolitan Adelaide. The questionnaire, translated to Italian and Greek so that main ethnic groups as well as English speakers could participate, was divided into three areas: (1) the most important purposes for sending a child to preschool; (2) the most important skills needed by children for functioning effectively when they are adults; and (3) the most important purposes of preschool in relation to the role of parents. (This paper deals only with areas one and two.) It was hypothesized that parents' expectations would differ from those of early childhood teachers, especially in relation to the relative importance of the above purposes. Contrary to this hypothesis it was found that both parents and teachers rated the purpose of social, emotional, and self development as the most important purposes for sending children to preschool, and that ability to care for environment, ability to use mathematical skills, and ability to use leisure time were ranked by both parents and teachers as the least important skills needed by children for the future. Non-English speaking parents, however, placed a higher priority on preparation for school in terms of skill development than did the rest of the sample. (Author/MP)

An evaluation of Monetary Economics, a course offered to distance education students of the University of Queensland in 1979 and 1980, was conducted in 1981. Monetary Economics is an innovative course designed and prepared using principles of educational technology specifically for distance education, and for the planning of effective interaction between the subject, teacher, and students. The aims of the course were to enable students to learn at their own individual pace and to increase the level of activity and involvement in the learning process. Audiotapes, workbooks, and small group syndicate discussions were used to achieve these aims. This report begins by describing the design strategy and major course features, including theoretical considerations, subject area considerations, student characteristics, design principles, and course structure. This description is followed by an explanation of the evaluation procedures and the results of the evaluation, which focused on student performance and their assessment of the course, course efficiency, cost effectiveness, and the consistency of results. It is concluded that the effectiveness of Monetary Economics is directly attributable to the effectiveness of education technology, which employed sound principles of learning to solve a problem in course design. A copy of the student questionnaire is appended. (30 references) (DB)

A 1981 investigation by the Australian National University (ANU) library of the scope and nature of online bibliographic retrieval services provided by the 19 Australian university libraries and 5 of the Australian central Institute of Technology libraries, and a further study carried out in 1980-81 to assess the satisfaction of patrons with online services offered by the ANU library are described in this 2-part report. Major areas examined in the library survey include the general management, organization and staffing of online services, charging schedules, equipment, facilities, systems accessed, and clientele. A description of the ANU library online service begins the report of the user study. Data collected on searches and user satisfaction by means of a search log, search request forms, and patron evaluation forms are presented in 26 tables, with separate figures for searchers on Lockheed Dialog and searches on the biomedical files available from the Australian Commonwealth Department of Health. Appendices comprise a list of the institutions whose libraries were included in the 1981 study; 9 tables of data and 2 figures presenting results of the library survey; and a sample search request form, log sheet, and search appraisal form used in the second study. (Author/ESR)

This paper presents results from a study undertaken in 1983 at the Australian National University (ANU) to determine the extent and type of problems academic staff and students had while using the library's catalogs or while locating materials on the shelves. A questionnaire mailed to a stratified random sample of approximately 1,200 academic staff, post-graduate and undergraduate students, and research assistants, yielded a response rate of between 70% and 87% for each of the target populations. Responses showed that a substantial portion of the university community had experienced some or all of the following: (1) confusion resulting from the number of different catalog sequences and the variety of formats used on microfiche and card records; (2) inadequate sign postings and floor plans; (3) insufficient reader service instruction on the range of library materials available and its location; and (4) inadequate information about changes in the catalog or relocation of particular books and journals. Information was also obtained on the desired range of access points to be made available when the catalog is put online. Tables displaying survey results and the nine-page survey questionnaire are included. (THC)

A study examined the literacy needs and activities of prison inmates in Australia. To gather data for the study, the researchers interviewed and administered questionnaires to 62 inmates from five Australian prisons. This report consists primarily of the comments and views of the individual prisoners who were clients, potential clients, and confirmed nonclients of educational classes in the five prisons included in the study. The focus of these data collection efforts was on the prisoners' appraisals of their own reading and writing abilities and the value they recognized in such activities, their opinions and suggestions on the ways in which reading and writing may be taught more effectively within the prison context, the role that reading and writing may play in individual cases of rehabilitation, and the most common requests made by inmates with reference to literacy education. The appendixes contain materials that supplement the data. The first appendix consists of a summary of the content of the interview questions used in the study, a brief sketch of the study respondents, a description of the transcripts recording the project interviews and observations, and a discussion of the methods of data analysis used in the study. Included in the second appendix are the transcript and questionnaire references used in the compilation of the first four chapters of the sutdy report. The third appendix is a recommended reading list. Concluding the volume is a paper entitled "Literacy, Literature, and Prison" that deals with the place of literature in the process of becoming and remaining literate. (MN)

This paper reports the results of a study of the implementation of multicultural education policy initiatives in Australia. An outline of the study's methods follows brief discussions of the emergence of multicultural education as a policy issue and the context of multicultural education in Australia. To assess the impact of multicultural education in the state of Western Australia, a federally funded small-scale grants scheme was selected as the study's focus. All grantees receiving such funds between 1979 and 1981 were requested in June 1982 to complete a questionnaire related to multicultural education implementation. Data were then analyzed from the returned questionnaires, documentary material, and interviews conducted with a subsample of questionnaire respondents. The ensuing discussion of survey results contains five information tables and covers five distinct areas of concern, including contexts for school-site decision-making and grantees' views of multicultural education. Following the subsequent presentation of survey results, field study results at each of the study's nine elementary and secondary school sites, and a synthesis of field study results, the paper concludes by noting four problems connected with the national implementation of multicultural education policy, including the lack of efficacy of schemes relying on local decision-making. (JBM)

This paper provides both a preliminary analysis of a survey on media education in India, and reviews of the research on media education in the western world, the limited media education research already done in India, and the more extensive research that has been done on the sociology of Indian youth and the media. The purpose of the survey was to investigate the extent of media access and exposure, the place of exposure, content preferences, and the views of secondary school students (N=1,000), teachers (N=150), and parents (N=60) on media and computer education. Students were from three distinct types of schools, as well as from different castes and religious and socioeconomic backgrounds. Preliminary analyses of responses to completed questionnaires indicated that the majority of all students favored certain Hindi programs, but that they differed in the kind of television serial or film they liked, and the newspapers, magazines, and comics they preferred. A model of media education for India should take into account: (1) the striking similarities and differences among Indian children from different types of schools; (2) the mix of the traditional and modern in Indian society; (3) the diversity of regional, linguistic, and religious groups; (4) theories of communication developed from Indian thought and experience; and (5) the Latin American 'liberation' approach to media education which seeks to promote a dialogic and participative communication system as opposed to a top-down hierarchical communication structure. (46 references) (CGD)

This research project used a conceptual framework to study television viewing as a process of communication rather than as a one way transfer of information from the set to the person. Children's own definitions of experience of television viewing/behavior were used to shape the direction and concerns of the project. As background to, and in support of, this project, a review of research on children and television is included. A three stage research design used a combination of methods to explore the relationship of children between the ages of 8-9 and 11-12 years with television. For Stage 1, 64 Australian school children were interviewed to determine their definitions of the television world and their television behavior. Stage 2 involved observations of 23 children at home watching television and doing other routine activities. In Stage 3, 486 school children were surveyed by questionnaire. Data collected were summarized under two headings: television viewing as children understand it, and social interaction during television viewing. It was concluded that: (1) adults need to be more aware of the dynamic relationship children have with television and its special significance to those who have little access to other kinds of leisure; (2) program content should do justice to their viewing abilities and curiosity; and (3) children must be given programs that deserve their enthusiasm. (33 references) (CGD)

The Vocational Interest Survey (VIS) is a set of six questionnaires for measuring vocational interests. It is designed to be used in career counseling with persons 15 years and over, who want to explore and understand their vocational interests. Completion of this inventory requires: (1) active participation of respondents, (2) a setting where individuals can concentrate, and (3) an understanding of the goal of this assessment. The purpose of this paper is to outline some aspects of the administration and scoring of the VIS, with special emphasis on the relative preference index. The VIS comes with instructions for administering and completing the survey. The reading level for the instructions is estimated to be at year 5/6 level. The VIS is designed to be essentially self-scoring. The procedure for computing raw scores is the same for all scales. Based on a sample of 2,459 men and women, combined-sex norms were developed as percentile ranks for each of the six scales. The Relative Preference Index (RPI) is used to make statements about a client's level of preference on each subscale. The RPI is a variation of a mastery score that shows quantity of preference. It describes the level of performance rather than the relative standing in a group. It is cautioned that any questionnaire should be employed as only one aspect of the vocational guidance process. (JAZ)

The user of the Vocational Interest Survey (VIS) has available a number of interpretative approaches at various descriptive and qualitative levels. This report provides a brief outline of the various approaches. Whenever all six scales of the VIS are administered, the client's total score on all six scales should be within the average range. The average total score is 54. Fifty percent of all clients range from 26 to 72. The clients' highest scores determine their resemblance to one of the six vocational types. People who resemble many vocational types are labeled as undifferentiated or poorly defined; the average level of differentiation in a sample of 206 high school students was 58. The level of consistency refers to the compatibility between a person's highest interests. Compatibility is measured by the distance between the vocational types of interest on a hexagonal typology of interests described by Holland. The hexagonal model may also be used to obtain four degrees of person-occupation congruency. Results from the VIS can be used to search for occupations which are compatible with interests. A copy of the interest profile and list of careers in each vocational category is attached. (JAZ)

The Vocational Interest Survey (VIS) is a set of six questionnaire scales for measuring vocational interest. It is designed for Australian users and is consistent with Holland's theory that there are six basic career categories. This paper discusses the development of the VIS and presents some technical data on the questionnaires. Items were provided by the users (in the form of free-association responses) rather than by psychologists. Based on those items, a pilot questionnaire was prepared, which contained three separate lists of 138 occupations, 105 study courses, and 152 activities. Complete-link clustering was used to develop six temporary groups of occupational items. The 105 items relating to study courses were then correlated with the six experimental scales. Further item-analyses were conducted to produce six combined jobs/study courses scales with maximum internal consistency. Finally, activity items were selected and added to the combined jobs/study courses. Reliability of VIS scales was assessed using measures of internal consistency, split-half reliability, and test-retest coefficients. In addition, the intercorrelations of the six VIS scales, the construct validity of the VIS, and the relationship between vocational interests on the VIS and career related characteristics were measured. The appendix provides a listing which summarizes the overall responses to each item. (JAZ)

The level, role, and purposes of research and development (R&D) in colleges of advanced education (CAEs) in Australia in 1986 is reported. Also covered are: sources of funding for R&D, ways in which CAEs collaborate with other institutions, how R&D is managed; and the perceived role of R&D in both the teaching process and growth of the institution. Basic information on R&D was obtained from college handbooks, reports, and papers written by academic staff. Of the 47 CAEs surveyed, 39 completed a questionnaire to indicate how R&D was supported and managed at the central level. Eight CAEs were visited and meetings were held with the heads of schools or deans of faculties, as well as heads of research centers and public research companies that operated under the auspices of the institution. In addition, about 200 academic staff actively involved in R&D were surveyed. Information is presented on: official views of R&D; the main forms in which R&D is documented (e.g., institutional reports and directories, research company reports); research in different fields of study; and organizational structures to support and facilitate R&D. The questionnaire and interview schedule are appended, along with a list of R&D consultancies and centers in CAEs. (SW)

A survey of a random sample of students from five tertiary institutions in Melbourne was conducted in 1986 to determine the nature and extent of their usage of their own university or college and other libraries. Questionnaires were mailed to 1,996 students, of whom 999 responded. The questionnaire sought information on: (1) students' backgrounds; (2) the types of libraries used; (3) the frequency of that usage; (4) the primary reasons for using academic and public libraries; (5) the resources and services used in these libraries; (6) the degree of satisfaction with services offered; and (7) the nature and extent of course-related usage of public libraries. Other comments were also solicited. A complex network of information sources used by students in fulfilling their course needs emerged from the study. Academic libraries were found to constitute the primary information source, with other sources, including public libraries, playing supplementary roles. It is noted that some of the traditional assumptions of the relative roles of different types of libraries are challenged by the data, and the final chapter explores some implications of these findings for planning library services in Victoria. Tabulated data are presented in 120 tables, and appendixes contain copies of the questionnaire and cover letter, a follow-up letter, additional cover letters, and respondents' comments. (82 references) (CGD)

This study examined the needs of beginning early childhood teachers in their first year of work in primary schools, kindergartens, or child care centers in Australia. The study surveyed teachers in 1988, 1989, and 1990; this paper discusses the results from the 1990 survey. Subjects were 31 teachers who responded to a questionnaire that concerned their perceptions of professional life. Teachers were also administered Fuller's Teacher Concerns Survey, which consists of an open-ended question about teachers' professional concerns. The questionnaire yielded responses which indicated that beginning teachers had a positive attitude toward their jobs, the children they taught, and their colleagues. Responses to the Teacher Concerns Survey indicated that the majority of respondents wanted to do their best, but above all, to survive in their jobs. (MM)

The development and validation of a new instrument, the School-Level Environment Questionnaire (SLEQ), are described. The SLEQ measures teachers' perceptions of psychosocial dimensions of the environment of the school. The SLEQ consists of 56 items, each scored on a five-point scale, and grouped in eight scales: (1) student support; (2) affiliation; (3) professional interest; (4) staff freedom; (5) participatory decision making; (6) innovation; (7) resource adequacy; and (8) work pressure. The SLEQ was validated with three samples from Australian schools: 83 teachers from 19 metropolitan elementary and secondary schools in Sydney; 34 secondary school beginning teachers in New South Wales; and 109 elementary and secondary teachers in Tasmania. Results indicate that each SLEQ scale displayed satisfactory internal consistency with satisfactory discriminant validity results, suggesting that distinct, but somewhat overlapping, aspects of school environment were measured. The SLEQ was used, in the Tasmanian sample, to determine differences in the climates of elementary and secondary schools. It was also used to evaluate teachers' efforts to improve school environment in a study of 15 elementary teachers in a pretest/posttest evaluation of improvement efforts. Four tables and two graphs present data from these studies; an appendix provides the SLEQ. A 33-item list of references is included. (SLD)

In view of recent Australian government policy favoring multiculturalism, a research study was undertaken to investigate the effect of literacy, bilingualism, and adult education and training on non-English speaking background (NESB) women in Australian society. NESB women have been identified as a migrant group with both special needs and problems as well as skills. This report reviews issues in literacy and bilingualism, new orientations in the 1990s for adult education and training, and workforce reform. The aim of the study was to enhance the opportunities for and access to further education and/or paid employment for NESB women. The methodology included a review of published and unpublished materials, interviews with a wide range of service providers and students, surveys of training opportunities, attendance at conferences and workshops, observations of a range of classes, collaboration on a literacy and basic education workshop, and development of a network of skilled informants. It is concluded that: (1) location, functioning, needs, and problems of NESB women as a specific group in Australia must continue to be the focus of research; and (2) matters of restructuring have profound implications for literacy, language, basic education and other forms of education and skills training for those in and out of the workforce. Eleven tables and figures on labor force participation rates, unemployment rates, and migration category supplement the narrative. Appended is information on the project outline, questionnaire, interview schedule, letters and survey sheets for government and community organizations, meeting agenda, and recommendations for a model for action. (LB) Adjunct ERIC Clearinghouse on Literacy Education.

This report presents the findings of a study into the experiences of non-English speaking background (NESB) migrant women in the Australian workforce. The fieldwork, which involved interviewing over 100 immigrant women living and working in Sydney, was carried out in 1988 and 1989. The study also involved an extensive review of Australian and international literature on immigrant women in the workforce and the analysis of recent census and labor force survey data. A particular focus was the experience of newly arrived immigrants, including the relationship between their premigration histories, their participation in the workforce in Australia, and their domestic and family responsibilities. Although the economic and social conditions of Australia have changed considerably in the post-war period, the similarities in the lives of women immigrants arriving in the 1950s and 1960s were more marked than the differences. Their place in the economy has altered little, and employment continues to play a key role in structuring women's lives despite the development of an increased role for the state through ethnic affairs policies. Little evidence was found to support the theory that immigrants' work force experiences reflected their pre-migration capital endowments. Instead, women from a variety of backgrounds ended up, after immigrating to Australia, in low status, unpleasant, and unrewarding jobs. Unemployment emerges as the greatest difficulty encountered by newly arrived women in Australia. The last chapter makes recommendations in the areas of vocational guidance and training, equal employment opportunity, work conditions, participation in trade unions, and child care and family support. An appendix contains the study questionnaire. (Contains 91 references.) (SLD)

In a study of gender equity issues in early childhood services, questionnaires were sent to staff and parents associated with five early childhood services in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia. Data were also obtained from observations of interactions between 3- to 5-year-olds and regular staff in the services. Other areas examined in the study were the activity and peer preferences of the children; the level of sex-stereotyped play in the services; and the degree to which there was a match between awareness, perceived behavior, and what was actually occurring. Data indicated that sex-role stereotypes are significant features of children's behavior in some early childhood settings and that these stereotypes are often unconsciously supported by the adults in these settings. A literature review covers materials concerning the development of young children's sex roles and gender equity issues in early childhood education. Recommendations for working towards the removal of stereotypical beliefs and attitudes about the sex role, behavior, and potential of individuals are provided. Appended are 18 references and related materials. (GLR)

This paper describes the evaluation of three curriculum models to teach technology. The three modules present technology as a design process involving problem identification and analysis; generation and evaluation of alternative solutions; planning and construction of models; and trialing, modification and evaluation. Participating pupil's knowledge and attitude toward technology became more positive. (MDH)