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Environmental changes pose significant threats to agricultural activities particularly animal production. These changes have induced major concerns which will negatively affect the poultry health and productivity under the current climate changes. Moreover, they also alter the immunological status of the exposed birds and make them susceptible to different diseases. The adverse effects of environmental stress also include poor performance of birds (reduced feed intake, growth, feed efficiency, immunity, and egg production) and inferior product quality. The adverse effect of heat stress on different quail breeds like Japanese quail, bobwhite quail, scaled quail, and Gambel's quail ranged from decreased growth rates (11.0–14.5%), body weight (7.7–13.2%), feed intake (6.1–21.6%), feed efficiency (4.3–8.6%), and egg production (6.6–23.3%). Also, birds reared under heat stress (34 °C) had significantly decreased Haugh units by 10.8% and egg weight by 14.3% in comparison with the control group (reared at 22 °C). On the other hand, increasing stoking density from 30 to 45 kg/m2 also negatively affected the feed intake and body weight. Recent studies have focused on evaluating the potential adverse effects of different environmental stresses on poultry performance, behavior, welfare, and reproduction. It is imperative to understand better the interaction of different environmental factors and their subsequent effects on avian physiology, to spotlights on the effective management and nutritional strategies to alleviate the adverse effects of different stresses in poultry. This review aims to present a comprehensive overview of physiological manifestations of major environmental stresses including thermal stress (heat and cold stress) and high stocking densities on poultry health and production. Moreover, we have also critically evaluated the scope and efficacy of some potential strategies to mitigate the influences of these environmental stressors in different poultry species.

The Northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) is a popular game bird that has been experiencing a well-documented decline throughout Texas since the 1960s. While much of this decline has been attributed to habitat loss and fragmentation, recent studies have identified other factors that may also contribute to decreasing quail populations. Parasites, in particular, have become increasingly recognized as possible stressors of quail, and some species, particularly the eyeworm (Oxyspirura petrowi) and cecal worm (Aulonocephalus pennula) are highly prevalent in Texas quails. Eyeworm infection has also been documented in some passerines, suggesting helminth infection may be shared between bird species. However, the lack of comprehensive helminth surveys has rendered the extent of shared infection between quail and passerines in the ecoregion unclear. Thus, helminth surveys were conducted on bobwhite, scaled quail (Callipepla squamata), Northern mockingbirds (Mimus polyglottos), curve-billed thrashers (Toxistoma curvirostre), and Northern cardinals (Cardinalis cardinalis) to contribute data to existing parasitological gaps for birds in the Rolling Plains ecoregion of Texas. Birds were trapped across 3 counties in the Texas Rolling Plains from March to October 2019. Necropsies were conducted on 54 individuals (36 quail and 18 passerines), and extracted helminths were microscopically identified. Nematode, cestode, and acanthocephalan helminths representing at least 10 helminth species were found. Specifically, A. pennula and O. petrowi had the highest prevalence, and O. petrowi was documented in all of the study species. This research adds to the body of knowledge regarding parasitic infections in quail and passerines of the Rolling Plains ecoregion and highlights the potential consequences of shared infection of eyeworms among these bird species.

A flock of captive bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) experienced loose droppings, depression, and increased mortality starting at 3 wk of age. Necropsy of the affected birds revealed intestines dilated with frothy and tan fluid. Irregular dark brown fissures within the koilin layer of the gizzard were found in 20%-30% of the birds. Histologically, gizzards showed multifocal koilin degeneration or fragmentation, degeneration and necrosis of the subjacent epithelial cells, and infiltration of macrophages, lymphocytes, and heterophils. Necrotic epithelial cells occasionally contained large, smudgy, basophilic intranuclear inclusion bodies with marginated nuclear chromatin. Adenoviral paracrystalline arrays composed of icosahedral virions (60-70 nm diameter) were seen on transmission electron microscopy in the nuclei of epithelial cells in the gizzard mucosa. Adenovirus was isolated from gizzard, liver, intestine, and trachea by inoculation of specific-pathogen-free embryonated chicken eggs. Homogenates of the gizzard, liver, and intestine were positive for the adenovirus hexon gene by PCR. Sequencing of PCR amplicons confirmed the virus as fowl aviadenovirus A. The study isolates showed more than 99% and 97% nucleotide identity with quail bronchitis virus and with aviadenoviruses from gizzard erosion and ulceration (GEU) in broilers, respectively. The viral isolates showed six substitutions (G1T, C174A, A229G, C513A, T579A, and G621C) of which two were nonsynonymous (G1T and A229G), resulting in a change in the translated amino acid as A1S and S77G, respectively. These results indicate that adenoviruses of the same type or species can cause different clinical presentations in quails, e.g., bronchitis or GEU.

The avian β-defensin (AvBD) gene region is an important component of the innate immune system, encoding a variety of antimicrobial peptides. The AvBD region forms a multigene cluster in a specific chromosomal region. Comparison of the AvBD region among various birds suggests the presence of defects, duplications, and pseudogenization at many loci. The AvBD region in certain galliform birds, namely chicken, turkey, and bobwhite quail, includes AvBD3, -6, and -7, with the latter exhibiting copy number variants (CNVs) in chickens. DNA for genomic analysis was extracted from the peripheral blood of 99 randomly selected quail (Coturnix japonica) from 6 inbred lines. Nine CjAvBD1 and 8 CjAvBD12 alleles were detected. Ten haplotypes, including three that were strain specific, were found in alleles from the quail AvBD1 (CjAvBD1) and -12 (CjAvBD12) loci. Next-generation sequencing was used to determine the nucleotide sequences of the CjAvBD gene region (56–70 kb) for 7 homozygous diplotypes of these 10 haplotypes. These 7 haplotypes contained between 12 and 16 CjAvBD genes and were composed of 11 common loci: CjAvBD1, -2, -4, -5, -8, -9, -10, -11, -12, -13, and -14, but lacked CjAvBD3 and -7. Furthermore, up to 5 CjAvBD101 (AvBD6 ortholog) CNVs were observed among the 7 haplotypes. In addition, we detected amino acid substitutions causing net charge mutations that could affect antimicrobial activity in CjAvBD4, -13, -14, and -101. These results suggest that the CjAvBD region is unique among the Galliformes and that its diversity results in potential functional variation in innate immunity.

Although the relationship between oak mast and Lyme disease incidence in humans is established in the Northeastern U.S., mast-disease relationships have not been explored for longleaf pine in the southeastern U.S. Here, we examine if relationships exist between longleaf pine mast and tick-borne disease incidence in humans using climate, wildfire, and northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) data as possible influential variables. We examined the relationship between longleaf pine mast data and tick-borne disease incidence for Lyme, Spotted Fever Group Rickettsia (SFGR), and Ehrlichia chaffeensis (ehrlichiosis) using one-sided Pearson's product-moment correlations at ten individual masting locations and for the entire masting region in the southeastern U.S. Region-wide mast from the previous year were positively correlated with northern bobwhite quail and negatively correlated with Lyme disease. Additionally, northern bobwhite quail were negatively correlated with SFGR and ehrlichiosis, and both drought severity and fire were not correlated with the other variables. We posit the nutrient-rich pine seeds that are a major food source for northern bobwhite quail promote above-average quail populations the following year. As quail diet transitions from seeds in cool months to ground-dwelling insects the following spring and summer, we hypothesize the ability of northern bobwhite quail to consume ticks reduces tick populations and significantly reduces disease incidence in humans.

Northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) are a highly sought-after game bird in the Rolling Plains of West Texas. Unfortunately, bobwhite populations in this area are subject to dramatic fluctuations and have been steadily decreasing over the past several decades. While many factors have been investigated as potential mechanisms of cyclic and declining bobwhite numbers, the effect of parasites on bobwhite populations has historically been undervalued. Between December 2017 and February 2018, we received 21 hunter-shot bobwhite from Garza and Mitchell counties in Texas and found peak caecal worm (Aulonocephalus pennula) and eyeworm (Oxyspirura petrowi) burdens averaging 599 and 44, respectively. These represent the highest average parasite loads we have documented in bobwhite from the Rolling Plains thus far and are coincident with widespread reports of declining bobwhite abundance. These elevated infections also followed a high point in bobwhite populations in the Rolling Plains, and our observations of infection dynamics during this time reflect other instances of potential parasite-induced host mortality. While the sample discussed in this communication is small, our findings highlight the need for additional research into how parasites may affect bobwhite population fluctuations in this region.

Aulonocephalus pennula is a nematode living in the caeca of the wild Northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) present throughout the Rolling Plains Ecoregion of Texas. The cytochrome oxidase 1 (COX 1) gene of the mitochondrial genome was used to screen A. pennula in wild quail. Through BLAST analysis, similarity of A. pennula to other nematode parasites was compared at the nucleotide level. Phylogenetic analysis of A. pennula COX1 indicated relationships to Subuluridae, Ascarididae, and Anisakidae. This study on molecular characterization of A. pennula provides new insight for the diagnosis of caecal worm infections of quail in the Rolling plains Ecoregion of Texas. Keywords: Aulonocephalus pennula, Caecal worm, Northern bobwhite, Phylogeny, PCR, COX1

This study investigated the effect of mismatching incubation and posthatch temperatures in northern bobwhite quail hatchlings. Quail embryos were incubated at 35.5° or 37.5°C. Metabolic rates were then measured in hatchlings acclimated to either the same or the opposite temperature treatment. While hatchlings expressed higher oxygen consumption when posthatch temperature did not match incubation temperature, the effect of mismatching temperatures was significant only when posthatch temperature was higher than incubation temperature. Our data suggest that bobwhite quail hatchlings may express increased metabolism due to mismatches between incubation and posthatch temperatures. More specifically, the nature or direction of the mismatch can determine the magnitude of the metabolic effect. These findings highlight the importance of considering the context of specific conditions experienced throughout ontogeny when observing phenotypic outcomes.

Sensory-motor development begins early during embryogenesis and is influenced by sensory experience. Little is known about the prenatal factors that influence the development of motor coordination. Here we investigated whether and to what extent prenatal light experience can influence the development of motor coordination in bobwhite quail hatchlings. Quail embryos were incubated under four light conditions: no light (dark), 2h of total light (2HR), 6h of total light (6HR), and diffused sunlight (controls). Hatchlings were video recording walking down a runway at three developmental ages (12, 24, and 48h). Videos were assessed for forward locomotion, a measurement of motor coordination, falls, a measurement of motor instability, and motivation to complete the task. We anticipated a linear decline of coordination with a reduction in prenatal light experience and improved coordination with age. Furthermore, as motor coordination becomes more laborious we anticipated motivation to complete the task would decline. However, our findings revealed hatchlings did not uniformly improve with age as expected, nor did the reduction of light result in a linear reduction in motor coordination. Instead, we found a more complex relationship with 6HR and 2HR hatchlings showing distinct patterns of stability and instability. Similarly, we found a reduction in motivation within the 6HR light condition. It appears that prenatal light exposure influences the development of postnatal motor coordination and we discuss these finding in light of neurodevelopmental processes influenced by light experience.

Parasitic nematodes that infect quail have been understudied and long been dismissed as a problem in quail management. Within the Rolling Plains ecoregion of Texas, an area that has experienced quail population “boom and bust” cycles and ultimately a general decline, the need to determine why Northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) populations are diminishing has increased in priority. Previously, caecal parasites have been documented to cause inactivity, weight loss, reduced growth, inflammation to the caecal mucosa, and even death. The caecal worm Aulonocephalus pennula is an intestinal nematode parasite that is commonly found within the caecum of quail, as well as many other avian species. In the Rolling Plains ecoregion, A. pennula has been documented to have as high as a 98% prevalence in bobwhite quail samples; however, the effect it has on its host is not well understood. The present study documents A. pennula causes no pathological changes within the caeca of the Northern bobwhite. However, there is concern for disruption of digestion and the possible implications of infection for wild bobwhite quail survival are discussed.

Altres ajuts: CEIRS/HHSN272201400008C Altres ajuts: APHIS/60-6040-6-005 Altres ajuts: DELTA-FLU/58-6040-7-012FN Altres ajuts: USDA/ARS/6612-32000- 066-00D In the 2014-2015 Eurasian lineage clade 2.3.4.4A H5 highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) outbreak in the U.S., backyard flocks with minor gallinaceous poultry and large commercial poultry (chickens and turkeys) operations were affected. The pathogenesis of the first H5N8 and reassortant H5N2 clade 2.3.4.4A HPAI U.S. isolates was investigated in six gallinaceous species: chickens, Japanese quail, Bobwhite quail, Pearl guinea fowl, Chukar partridges, and Ring-necked pheasants. Both viruses caused 80-100% mortality in all species, except for H5N2 virus that caused 60% mortality in chickens. The surviving challenged birds remained uninfected based on lack of clinical disease and lack of seroconversion. Among the infected birds, chickens and Japanese quail in early clinical stages (asymptomatic and listless) lacked histopathologic findings. In contrast, birds of all species in later clinical stages (moribund and dead) had histopathologic lesions and systemic virus replication consistent with HPAI virus infection in gallinaceous poultry. These birds had widespread multifocal areas of necrosis, sometimes with heterophilic or lymphoplasmacytic inflammatory infiltrate, and viral antigen in parenchymal cells of most tissues. In general, lesions and antigen distribution were similar regardless of virus and species. However, endotheliotropism was the most striking difference among species, with only Pearl guinea fowl showing widespread replication of both viruses in endothelial cells of most tissues. The expression of IFN-γand IL-10 in Japanese quail, and IL-6 in chickens, were up-regulated in later clinical stages compared to asymptomatic birds.

Contingency perception is critical during infancy, providing the basis for the continuous learning (and re-learning) of the relation between the developing body, self-produced actions, and the environment. Nevertheless, relatively few studies have systematically examined the spatiotemporal parameters that optimize learning during development. Here, we present a series of experiments exploring a novel timing-specific deficit in auditory learning in an animal model, the bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus). In this paradigm, chicks vocalize to hear playback of an unfamiliar maternal call and are later tested for their filial preference for that call over a novel maternal call. Rather than a simple, hyperbolic decline in learning with increased delay between chick vocalization and playback, we found a window—450–900 msec after chicks ceased vocalizing—in which chicks appeared to have difficulty learning and forming a preference for the maternal call. This deficit nonetheless occurred only when the spatial location of call playback switched semi-randomly during training, suggesting an attentional explanation for this deficit. Our findings indicate that optimization of the temporal parameters in operant paradigms with infants can be complex, particularly if tasks requiring the switching of attention between spatial locations. Our findings may thus be instructive for other developmental research with infants employing operant components.

The northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) is a game bird experiencing decline throughout much of its range. There are limited species-specific and age-specific hematologic data for bobwhite quail. Complete blood cell counts in eighteen 49-day-old captive-raised quail of unverified sex were used to contribute data to reference intervals for the species as juvenile animals. Values for packed cell volumes, total solids, red and white blood cell counts, and white cell differential calculations were recorded for each animal. Bobwhite quail of this age were found to be primarily lymphocytic, but considerable variability was observed. White blood cell counts were obtained by estimates from blood smears and Phloxine B stain. White blood cell counts performed with ×1000 magnification did not compare well with other white blood cell methods, including Phloxine B stain.

Temperature during the prenatal period is an important factor for developing embryos. Extensive human and animal research indicate embryos are sensitive to small fluctuations in temperature which has profound effects on phenotype development. Much of this research has focused on survivability, morphology, and incubation duration, but comparatively less in known about how prenatal temperature influences the development of motor coordination. In this study, we experimentally tested whether exposure to naturally occurring cool (36.9 °C) or warm (38.1 °C) thermal conditions for a brief period (4 days) during early incubation can influence postnatal motor performance in neonatal bobwhite quail hatchlings. We compared gait spatiotemporal parameters, body kinematics, and locomotive behaviors of control chicks incubated in an optimal thermal environment (37.5 °C) with thermally manipulated chicks. Experimental temperature treatment began on embryonic day five (E5) and ended on E8. Chicks were tested 24-h after hatching. Cool thermal exposure during incubation delayed hatching, reduced body mass, and increased fall frequency, intertarsal joint angle and stride length variability during the gait task compared to optimally incubated chicks. Warm thermal exposure during incubation delayed bone growth and increased fall frequency relative to controls. We discuss the relationship between motor development and thermal regulatory processes and provide insight into how spatiotemporal parameters aid in elucidating subtle differences in coordinated movement which may contribute to atypical motor development and be associated with neural developmental disorders. We provide the first spatiotemporal evidence for the importance of optimal thermal microclimates for typical prenatal motor development.

Hunters have been a fundamental component of northern bobwhite quail conservation for most of the past century. Bobwhite quail hunters funded the first modern comprehensive life history study of a wild vertebrate in the 1920s to understand causes responsible for population declines. This investigation identified a causal link between frequent applications of prescribed fire and persistence of bobwhite quail populations in the Southeastern United States, and provided the foundation for contemporary fire ecology science. Since then, hunters in the Southeastern and Midwestern United States have funded numerous other bobwhite quail research and conservation efforts. Research and conservation efforts funded by quail hunters in Texas continue to be especially notable. Non-governmental organizations, and academia, as well as state and federal wildlife agencies have been the conduits for efforts to sustain bobwhite quail populations because predominant land uses no longer support bobwhite quail.

Transmission via shared water implicates passerine birds as possible vectors for dissemination of this virus., Low pathogenicity avian influenza A(H7N9) virus has been detected in poultry since 2013, and the virus has caused >450 infections in humans. The mode of subtype H7N9 virus transmission between avian species remains largely unknown, but various wild birds have been implicated as a source of transmission. H7N9 virus was recently detected in a wild sparrow in Shanghai, China, and passerine birds, such as finches, which share space and resources with wild migratory birds, poultry, and humans, can be productively infected with the virus. We demonstrate that interspecies transmission of H7N9 virus occurs readily between society finches and bobwhite quail but only sporadically between finches and chickens. Inoculated finches are better able to infect naive poultry than the reverse. Transmission occurs through shared water but not through the airborne route. It is therefore conceivable that passerine birds may serve as vectors for dissemination of H7N9 virus to domestic poultry.

Non-genetic maternal influences on prenatal development have a significant effect on the development of early life behavior. This study assessed the behavioral effect of elevated prenatal progesterone on postnatal emotional reactivity, or underlying fear and stress, in embryos of Northern bobwhite quail ( Colinus virginianus) . Test groups of progesterone treated eggs, vehicle treated, and no injection were exposed to three measures of emotional reactivity at 48 and 96 hours after hatch: an open field, an emergence test, and a tonic immobility test. Heightened levels of emotional reactivity in the tonic immobility emergence tasks, and decreased levels of emotional reactivity in the open field suggest that elevated prenatal progesterone modifies post natal emotional reactivity up to 96 hours of age.

Quail is an important and interesting group of galliform birds. The Common quail (Coturnix coturnix); the Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica); the Panda quail (Coturnix japonica); the Dotted white quail (Coturnix japonica) and the Bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) were used in this study. PCR-RFLP and SDS-proteins were performed to reveal the genetic characterization and genetic relationship of the studied quails. Analysis of fragments generated by digestion of PCR product with restriction enzyme NlaIII recorded highly polymorphic restriction profiles. There is a wide intraspecific COI, SEMA3E and TLX genes variability among the studied quails. Protein bands varied from10 to 18 between quails with minimum number of bands were in the Dotted white quail (10 bands) and the maximum were in the Japanese quail (18 bands) as measured by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The Dotted white quail revealed the lowest similarity to the Bobwhite with a coefficient of 0.18 while The similarity coefficients between the Common quail and each one of the other quails were 0.67, 0.62, 0.45 and 0.42 for the Japanese, Panda, Dotted white and the Bobwhite quails, respectively. The results indicate that, PCR-RFLP and protein analyses are good techniques to evaluate genetic characterization and genetic relationship of these quails.

The ex vivo culture of avian embryos is a technique for the long-term culturing of embryos outside of their own shell and shell membrane. It allows easy access to the developing embryos and embryo manipulation. The two-step system is widely applied when the culture is performed after oviposition. Japanese quail as well as bobwhite quail are used as models for avian safety assessment as recommended by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) guidelines. However, biological studies on the bobwhite quail have been more limited than those on the Japanese quail. We have developed a more simplified ex vivo culture protocol for the two species of quail embryos from the blastoderm stage through to hatching using a single surrogate eggshell. Hatchabilities of 31% and 27% were obtained in bobwhite quail and Japanese quail embryos, respectively. The simple system described in the present study is an easy and acceptable procedure., Article, JOURNAL OF POULTRY SCIENCE. 51(2):202-205 (2014)

World Health Organization (WHO) toxic equivalency factors are used to calculate toxic equivalent (TEQ) concentrations of complex mixtures of dioxin-like compounds (DLCs), such as polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins, polychlorinated dibenzofurans and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), for mammals, fish and birds. The TEQ concept assumes that all species of a taxa respond with similar sensitivity to individual DLCs, but several reports do not support this assumption for birds. Our laboratory is conducting research to attempt to uncover the fundamental mechanism(s) underlying the reasons why avian species differ in sensitivity to DLCs. The present study determined concentration-dependent effects of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), 2,3,4,7,8-pentachlorodibenzofuran (PeCDF) and 3,3',4,4',5-pentachlorobiphenyl (PCB 126) on ethoxyresorufin-O-deethylase (EROD) activity in primary cultures of northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) hepatocytes. Bobwhite quail were studied because (1) this species is used in the laboratory for toxicity testing and (2) the amino acids at all locations within the ligand binding domain (LBD) of aryl hydrocarbon receptor 1 (AHR1) in bobwhite quail and ring necked pheasant (Phasianus colchicus) are identical. Because earlier work indicated the importance of the identity of amino acids at key sites within the AHR1 LBD, we hypothesized that bobwhite quail and ring necked pheasant hepatocytes should have similar sensitivity to EROD induction by DLCs. ECthreshold-based relative sensitivity of the bobwhite quail compared to chicken for TCDD, PeCDF and PCB 126 was 0.11, 0.17 and 0.02, respectively. The rank order of potency was PeCDF > TCDD > PCB 126. The results confirm that bobwhite quail and ring-necked pheasant hepatocytes have similar sensitivity to EROD induction by TCDD, PeCDF and PCB 126.

Quail are divided phylogenetically into two groups, Old World quail and New World quail. Old World quail, such as the Japanese quail (Coturnix japonica), belong to the Phasianidae and distributed in the Palaearctic region (Europe, North Africa, and Asia), whereas New World quail, such as the bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus), belong to the Odontophoridae and are restricted to North and South America. Both the bobwhite quail and the Japanese quail are used as models for avian safety assessment as recommended by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) guidelines. However, biological studies on the bobwhite quail have been limited compared with those on the Japanese quail. We have therefore now developed an ex vivo culture protocol for bobwhite quail embryos from the blastoderm stage through hatching. Of the various culture conditions examined in the present study, a good hatching rate (39%) was obtained when the embryos were cultured ex vivo in a two-step procedure. Unincubated embryos (with egg yolk) were first cultured inside the shell of a Japanese quail egg (11.5 to 13.0 g whole egg weight) together with chicken thin albumen for 63 to 65 h and were then transferred to the shell of a small-sized chicken egg (38 g whole egg weight) until hatching. This ex vivo culture system should provide to be widely applicable to the maintenance and generation of manipulated birds for basic and applied studies on the bobwhite quail., Article, JOURNAL OF POULTRY SCIENCE. 50(2):155-158 (2013)

Since their emergence in the early 1990s, neonicotinoid use has increased exponentially to make them the world's most prevalent insecticides. Although there has been considerable research concerning the lethality of neonicotinoids, their sub-lethal and developmental effects are still being explored, especially with regard to non-mammalian species. The goal of this research was to investigate the effects of the neonicotinoid imidacloprid on the morphological and physiological development of northern bobwhite quail ( Colinus virginianus ). Bobwhite eggs ( n = 390) were injected with imidacloprid concentrations of 0 (sham), 10, 50, 100, and 150 mg/kg of egg mass, which was administered at day 0 (pre-incubation), 3, 6, 9, or 12 of growth. Embryos were dissected, weighed, staged, and examined for any overt structural deformities after 19 days of incubation. The mass of the embryonic heart, liver, lungs and kidneys was also recorded. The majority of treatments produced no discernible differences in embryo morphology; however, in some instances, embryos were subject to increased frequency of anatomical deformity and altered organ masses. Some impacts were more pronounced in specific dosing periods, implying that there may be critical windows of development when embryos are more susceptible to neonicotinoid exposure. This investigation suggests that imidacloprid has the potential to impact bobwhite quail embryonic development and chick survival.

From 2008 to 2012, 4 separate cases of quail bronchitis virus infection were seen in bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) raised in Minnesota. The quail chicks ranged in age from 5 d to 8 wk and suffered from respiratory distress and elevated mortality. On necropsy, gross lesions consisted of mucus in trachea, congested lungs, caseous air sacculitis, accumulation of chalky white urates on internal organs, necrotic foci in liver, and enlarged spleen. Histologic examination revealed fibrinoheterophilic rhinitis, heterophilic bronchitis, heterophilic tracheitis, and interstitial pneumonia in addition to deciliation, desquamation, and necrosis of bronchial respiratory epithelium. Karyomegaly with basophilic intranuclear inclusions was also seen in affected epithelium. Severe epicarditis, pericarditis, myocarditis, multifocal necrotizing hepatitis, and splenitis were additional pathological findings. Quail bronchitis virus (QBV) was isolated from all four samples when inoculated in specific-pathogen-free (SPF) embryonated chicken eggs. The virus was confirmed by electron microscopy and polymerase chain reaction using fowl adenovirus (FAdV) hexon gene-specific primers. Nucleotide sequences of the four isolates showed 99.0% identity with CELO strain of fowl adenovirus A. Nine nucleotide substitutions were observed; 3 of these were nonsynonymous (A281G, C314T and G565C), leading to changes in deduced amino acid sequences (S94G, T105M and A189P, respectively). Based on partial sequence of the hexon gene, QBV isolates of this study clustered closely with fowl adenovirus A and were different from FAdV groups B through E and from adenoviruses of goose, duck, turkey, and pigeon. Further studies are indicated to determine the impact of nonsynonymous substitutions on host specific pathogenicity of these viruses.

This study describes the first isolation of H9N2 avian influenza virus (AIV) from commercial bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) in Egypt. Infected birds showed neither clinical signs nor mortality. Virus isolation and real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction confirmed the presence of the H9N2 virus in cloacal swab samples collected at 35 days of age and the absence of other AIV subtypes, including H5 and H7. The hemagglutinin and neuraminidase genes of the isolated virus showed 99.1% and 98.2% nucleotide identity and 97.3% and 100% amino acid identity, respectively, to those of H9N2 viruses currently circulating in poultry in the Middle East. Phylogenetically, the Egyptian H9N2 virus was closely related to viruses of the G1-like lineage isolated from neighbouring countries, indicating possible epidemiological links.

The avian haemosporidian parasites (phylum Apicomplexa) are taxonomically diverse and cosmopolitan in distribution; infecting most bird families. Sources of concern are reports of clinical haemosporidian infections in birds kept as part of zoo and aviary collections. Recently, severe and acute mortality episodes have been reported in masked bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus ridgwayi), an endangered subspecies from the American Southwest. Two hundred and five eggs of the captive flock held in Arivaca, Arizona, were hatched at a zoo in the American Southwest. Thirty four sub-adult or adult animals had lesions associated with tissue phases of hemoparasites, especially vasculitis, ventricular leiomyositis and ulcerative pododermatitis. Molecular techniques applied to blood collected from the zoo’s last twelve remaining animals resulted in the detection of a Plasmodium juxtanucleare-like and Haemoproteus sp. parasites. A Raven (Corvus corax), in a contiguous exhibit, was positive for the same Plasmodium juxtanucleare-like parasite, but remained asymptomatic for three years following detection. These findings indicate that other birds in the exhibit within the zoo premises could act as reservoirs. We conclude that haemosporidian infections could be a factor in the demise of the captive masked bobwhite quails housed at the zoo. We suggest that active surveillance for haemoporidian parasites should be incorporated as a precaution to ex-situ conservation efforts of susceptible endangered species.

At military training sites, a variety of pollutants such as hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX), may contaminate the area originating from used munitions. Studies investigating the mechanism of toxicity of RDX have shown that it affects the central nervous system causing seizures in humans and animals. Environmental pollutants such as RDX have the potential to affect many different species, therefore it is important to establish how phylogenetically distant species may respond to these types of emerging pollutants. In this paper, we have used a transcriptional network approach to compare and contrast the neurotoxic effects of RDX among five phylogenetically disparate species: rat (Sprague-Dawley), Northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus), fathead minnow (Pimephales promelas), earthworm (Eisenia fetida), and coral (Acropora formosa). Pathway enrichment analysis indicated a conservation of RDX impacts on pathways related to neuronal function in rat, Northern bobwhite quail, fathead minnows and earthworm, but not in coral. As evolutionary distance increased common responses decreased with impacts on energy and metabolism dominating effects in coral. A neurotransmission related transcriptional network based on whole rat brain responses to RDX exposure was used to identify functionally related modules of genes, components of which were conserved across species depending upon evolutionary distance. Overall, the meta-analysis using genomic data of the effects of RDX on several species suggested a common and conserved mode of action of the chemical throughout phylogenetically remote organisms.

Lead (Pb) is a worldwide environmental contaminant known to adversely affect multiple organ systems in both mammalian and avian species. In birds, a common route of exposure is via oral ingestion of lead particles. Data are currently lacking for the retention and clearance of Pb bullet fragments in gastrointestinal (GI) tract of birds while linking toxicity with blood Pb levels. In the present study, northern bobwhite quail fed a seed-based diet were orally gavaged with Pb bullet fragments (zero, one or five fragments/bird) and evaluated for rate of fragment clearance, and changes in peripheral blood, renal, immune, and gastrointestinal parameters. Based on radiographs, the majority of the birds cleared or absorbed the fragments by seven days, with the exception of one five-fragment bird which took between 7 and 14 days. Blood Pb levels were higher in males than females, which may be related to egg production in females. In males but not females, feed consumption, body weight gain, packed cell volume (PCV), plasma protein concentration, and δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (δ-ALAD) activity were all adversely affected by five Pb fragments. Birds of both sexes that received a single Pb fragment displayed depressed δ-ALAD, suggesting altered hematologic function, while all birds dosed with five bullet fragments exhibited greater morbidity.

Many precocial birds show a robust preference for the maternal call of their own species before and after hatching. This differential responsiveness to species-specific auditory stimuli by embryos and neonates has been the subject of study for more than four decades, but much remains unknown about the dynamics of this ability. Gottlieb [Gottlieb [1971]. Development of species identification in birds: An enquiry into the prenatal determinants of perception. Chicago/London: University of Chicago Press.] demonstrated that prenatal exposure to embryonic vocalizations serves to canalize the formation of species-specific preferences in ducklings. Apart from this, little is known about the features of the developmental system that serve to canalize such species-typical preferences, on the one hand, and generate novel behavioral phenotypes, on the other. In the current study, we show that briefly exposing bobwhite quail embryos to a heterospecific Japanese quail (JQ) maternal call significantly enhanced their acquisition of a preference for that call when chicks were provided with subsequent postnatal exposure to the same call. This was true whether postnatal exposure involved playback of the maternal call contingent upon chick contact vocalizations or yoked, non-contingent exposure to the call. Chicks that received both passive prenatal and contingent postnatal exposure to the JQ maternal call redirected their species-typical auditory preference, showing a significant preference for JQ call over the call of their own species. In contrast, chicks receiving only prenatal or only postnatal exposure to the JQ call did not show this redirection of their auditory preference. Our results indicate that prenatal sensory stimulation can significantly bias postnatal responsiveness to social stimuli, thereby altering the course of early learning and memory.

Birds are exposed to Pb by oral ingestion of spent Pb shot as grit. A paucity of data exists for retention and clearance of these particles in the bird gastrointestinal tract. In the current study, northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) were orally gavaged with 1, 5, or 10 Pb shot pellets, of 2-mm diameter, and radiographically followed over time. Blood Pb levels and other measures of toxicity were collected, to correlate with pellet retention. Quail dosed with either 5 or 10 pellets exhibited morbidity between weeks 1 and 2 and were removed from further study. Most of the Pb pellets were absorbed or excreted within 14 d of gavage, independent of dose. Pellet size in the ventriculus decreased over time in radiographs, suggesting dissolution caused by the acidic pH. Birds dosed with one pellet showed mean blood Pb levels that exceeded 1,300 µg/dl at week 1, further supporting dissolution in the gastrointestinal tract. Limited signs of toxicity were seen in the one-pellet birds; however, plasma δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (d-ALAD) activity was persistently depressed, suggesting possible impaired hematological function. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 2010;29:2869–2874. © 2010 SETAC

The telencephalon is proportionately larger in parrots than in galliformes (chicken-like birds), whereas the midbrain tectum is proportionately smaller. We here test the hypothesis that the adult species difference in midbrain proportion is due to an evolutionary change in early brain patterning. In particular, we compare the size of the early embryonic midbrain between parakeets (Melopsittacus undulatus) and bobwhite quail (Colinus virgianus) by examining the expression domains of transcription factors Pax6 and Gbx2, which are expressed in the forebrain and hindbrain, respectively. Because these expression domains form rostral and caudal borders with the presumptive midbrain when this region is specified (Hamburger-Hamilton stages 9-11), they allow us to measure and compare the sizes of a molecularly defined presumptive midbrain in the two species. Based on published data from older embryos, we predicted that the molecularly defined midbrain territory is significantly larger in quail than parakeets. Indeed, our data show that normalized midbrain length is 33% greater in quail and that the midbrain to forebrain ratio is 28% greater. This is strong evidence of a significant species difference in early brain patterning.

We explored the amount and timing of temporal synchrony necessary to facilitate prenatal perceptual learning using an animal model, the bobwhite quail. Quail embryos were exposed to various audiovisual combinations of a bobwhite maternal call paired with patterned light during the late stages of prenatal development and were tested postnatally for evidence of prenatal auditory learning of the familiarized call. Results revealed that a maternal call paired with a single pulse of light synchronized with one note of the five note call was sufficient to facilitate embryos’ prenatal perceptual learning of the entire call. A synchronous note occurring at the onset of the call burst was most effective at facilitating learning. These findings highlight quail embryos’ remarkable sensitivity to temporal synchrony and indicate its role in promoting learning of redundantly specified stimulus properties during prenatal development.

Ulcerative enteritis-like disease due to Clostridium perfringens type A was attributed as the cause of mortality in excess of 50% in a flock of 1000, 10-to-16-wk-old bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus). Clinical signs in these birds ranged from sudden death to listlessness, depression, watery white droppings, ruffled feathers, loss of weight, and death in a few days. Necropsy of 30 birds revealed multiple deep ulcers of the mucosa throughout the small intestine and ceca, some with perforation and subsequent coelomitis (peritonitis). The livers in some birds contained white foci of necrosis, and many birds had enlarged and congested spleens. Microscopic lesions included multifocal severe fibrinosuppurative ulcerative enteritis associated with large numbers of rod-shaped gram-positive bacteria, and necrotizing hepatitis with or without rod-shaped bacteria. Anaerobic culturing of the intestine and liver yielded pure cultures of C. perfringens. The C perfringens isolates were of genotype A and were polymerase chain reaction-positive for alpha toxin and for cpb2, the structural gene for beta2 toxin. Repeated attempts to isolate C colinum by using a specialized medium containing 8% horse plasma were not fruitful, suggesting that the enteritis and hepatitis in these birds were produced by C pefringens. Retrospective examination of records of quail submissions to the California Animal Health and Food Safety Laboratory System over 16 yr revealed at least nine quail submissions in which isolation of C. perfringens from the liver, intestine, or both was associated with ulcerative enteritis and hepatitis in quail. This is the first description of ulcerative enteritis-like disease in quail associated with C perfringens. Final conclusions await experimental reproduction of the disease.

We evaluated the use of the gas exchange rate as an ecologically relevant indicator of chemical stress in avian embryos/eggs. Northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) were exposed to octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX) via feed containing nominal concentrations of 0, 12.5, 50.0, and 125.0 mg kg(-1). Metabolic rates (oxygen consumption) of developing quail eggs were then measured via respirometry to examine potential effects of HMX exposure. Metabolic rates were examined on 5, 9, and 21 d of incubation. Next, concentrations of HMX in embryos/eggs were determined by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. Mean (+/-SE) concentrations of HMX in eggs were 21.0+/-5.9, 1113+/-79.0, 3864+/-154.0, and 7426+/-301.1 ng g(-1) in control, low, medium and high dose groups, respectively. There were significant differences in oxygen consumption among the three embryo ages, however differences among the ages were not consistent among dose groups (age x dose group interaction p

Parrots, including parakeets, evolved significantly larger brains than other birds, relative to their body size, and they possess a proportionately larger telencephalon. For example, the telencephalon occupies approximately 68% of the brain in parakeets but only 52% in bobwhite quail. The present study was designed to determine when and how this difference in brain region proportions arises during development. To that end, we present volumetric data on the major brain regions in parakeets and bobwhite quail at several stages of embryogenesis, at hatching and, for the parakeets, 1 week after hatching. We also report on the proportional sizes of each region's proliferative and postproliferative zones. One major finding is that parakeets develop a proportionately larger telencephalon relatively late in development and that this late increase correlates with a delay in telencephalic neurogenesis. The most prominent aspect of this delayed telencephalic development is a tremendous expansion of the proliferative subventricular zone in the telencephalon of late embryonic and posthatching parakeets. The second major finding is that the tectum is much smaller in parakeets than in quail at all developmental stages examined, suggesting that the tectum's reduced size is due to an evolutionary change in how much tissue was allocated to become tectum at the time of brain regionalization. Collectively these findings indicate that evolutionary changes in brain region proportions are caused not by a single type of change but by several distinct developmental mechanisms, including changes in brain regionalization and neurogenesis timing.

Adult brains differ among species in the proportional sizes of their major subdivisions. For example, the telencephalon occupies 71% of the entire brain in parakeets (Melopsittacus undulatus) but only 54% in quail (Colinus virginianus). In contrast, the tectum is smaller in parakeets than in quail. To determine whether these differences in brain region size arise because of species differences in cell cycle rates, parakeet and quail embryos were collected at various stages of development (HH24–HH37) and stained with antibodies against proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), which labels all dividing cells, and phosphorylated histone-3 (pH3), which labels M-phase cells. Analysis of pH3+ cell densities and pH3+/PCNA+ cell ratios were used to compare cell cycle rates across stages and species. Cumulative labeling with bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) was also used to compare cell cycle rates at stages 24 and 28 in quail. We found that telencephalic cell cycle rates lengthen with age in both species, but that they lengthen significantly later in parakeets than in quail. This species difference in cell cycle rates explains, at least partly, why adult parakeets have a proportionately larger telencephalon. Tectal cell cycle rates also remain elevated for a prolonged period of time in parakeets compared to quail. This seems paradoxical at first, given that the parakeet’s adult tectum is relatively small. However, the tectum is initially much smaller but then grows more extensively in parakeets than in quail. Thus, species differences in adult brain proportions can be traced back to species differences in cell cycle kinetics.

Previous studies have established that yolk hormones of maternal origin can influence physiology and behavior in birds. However, few studies have examined the effects of maternal gestagens, like progesterone, on chick behavior and physiology. We tested the effects of experimentally elevated egg yolk progesterone on embryonic heart rate and postnatal auditory learning in bobwhite quail hatchlings. Quail chicks were passively exposed to an individual maternal assembly call for 10 min/hr during the 24 hr following hatching. Preference for the familiarized call was tested at 48 hr following hatching in three experimental groups: chicks that received artificially elevated yolk progesterone (P) prior to incubation, vehicle-only controls (V), and non-manipulated controls (C). Resting heart rate of P, V, and C embryos were also measured on prenatal day 17. The resting heart rate of P embryos was significantly higher than both the V and C embryos. Chicks from the P group also showed an enhanced preference for the familiarized bobwhite maternal call when compared to chicks from the C and V groups. Our results indicate that elevated yolk progesterone in pre-incubated bobwhite quail eggs can influence arousal level in bobwhite embryos and postnatal perceptual learning in bobwhite neonates.

Adult Northern bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) were exposed via food to octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine (HMX), an energetic compound found in soils at military training installations. Depuration of HMX into eggs was examined in an initial study, and effects on egg production, hatching, growth, development, and survival of chicks were examined in a follow-up study. HMX was readily and rapidly transferred from female quail into eggs. Marked weight loss was observed in quail exposed to 125 and 250 mg/kg HMX in food, likely due to reductions in food intake rather than a toxic mechanism. In the second study, significant alterations in body mass occurred among quail at concentrations52.5 +/- 9.3 mg/kg but not at 12.3 +/- 1.1 mg/kg in food. Treatment-related reductions in food consumption and decreases in egg laying rates were observed. No HMX-related effects were found in chick growth or survival. Quail inhabiting HMX-contaminated sites could possibly be exposed to HMX and therefore deposition of HMX into eggs is also possible. However, results of these studies further suggest that the potential for reproductive toxicity of HMX to birds is low.

Adult mallard ducks and northern bobwhite quail were exposed to 0, 10, 50, or 150 mg perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS)/kg in the diet for up to 21 weeks. Adult health, body and liver weight, feed consumption, gross morphology and histology of body organs, and reproduction were examined. Due to mortality, birds exposed to 50 or 150 mg PFOS/kg feed were terminated by Week 7. In quail, the lowest observable adverse effect level (LOAEL) was 10 mg PFOS/kg feed based on decreased survivorship of 14-day-old quail offspring. For adult female quail fed 10 mg/kg feed, there was a slight but statistically significantly PFOS-related increase in liver weight when compared to controls. When liver weight was normalized to body weight, the statistically significant differences were still observed indicating that PFOS affected liver size. However, no other pathological effects were observed livers of quail from this treatment group which suggests that this enlargement may have been an adaptive response. For adult mallards, no treatment-related effects on feed consumption, body or liver weight, growth, or reproductive performance were observed. There was a slightly greater incidence of small testes (length) in adult male mallards and quail exposed to 10 mg PFOS/kg, feed when compared to controls. However, spermatogenesis was not affected and there was no effect on the rates of egg fertilization. Due to transfer to eggs, concentrations of PFOS measured in the liver and blood at study termination were greater in male birds than female birds.

In vitro putative cytochrome P450 3A mediated activity, and inhibition thereof, were measured in four avian species using midazolam (MDZ) as a substrate and ketoconazole as an inhibitor. All species produced 1-hydroxymidazolam (1-OH MDZ) to a much greater extent than 4-hydroxymidazolam (4-OH MDZ). Calculated Vmaxapparent values for formation of 1-OH MDZ were 117 ± 17, 239 ± 108, 437 ± 168, and 201 ± 55 pmol/mg protein*min and Kmapparent values were 2.1 ± 0.8, 2.4 ± 1.6, 6.7 ± 5.1 and 3.2 ± 2.1 μ [smallcapital m] for chicken, turkey, pheasant and bobwhite quail, respectively. For the formation of 4-OH MDZ the Vmaxapparent values were 21 ± 10, 94 ± 46, 144 ± 112, and 68 ± 30 pmol/mg protein*min and Kmapparent values for 4-OH MDZ formation were 12.4 ± 10.1, 18.0 ± 10.8, 38.6 ± 34.7 and 29.1 ± 10.1 μ [smallcapital m] for chicken, turkey, pheasant and bobwhite quail, respectively. In all four species, ketoconazole inhibited the production of both major metabolites of MDZ, with 4-OH MDZ formation more sensitive to inhibition than 1-OH MDZ. Pheasant and bobwhite quail appeared most sensitive to ketoconazole inhibition.

It has been difficult to establish reliable indices of exposure to endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) appropriate for a variety of avian species because of a vast array of reproductive strategies. Data from mammals, reptiles and fish provide insight on likely mechanisms of action for EDCs. However, many of the effects of EDCs are weaker than the actions of the native hormones, making it difficult to assess adverse effects in domestic and wild birds. It is clear that differential sensitivity to EDCs exists across species, due to the timing and mode of exposure, compound toxicity and age of the individual. Our studies on EDCs are conducted in the quail model system, with focus on reproductive endocrine, neuroendocrine and behavioral responses. Studies have included EDC exposure, either by egg injection or via diet. Results from egg injection studies showed the following: (1) estradiol administered by embryonic day 12 demasculinized male sexual behavior, altered hypothalamic neurotransmitters and reduced hen day production and fertility in a dose dependent fashion, (2) methoxychlor (MXC) or vinclozolin impaired male sexual behavior in adult quail and (3) DDE exposure impaired reproductive and immune related end points. Two-generation studies were conducted on Japanese and northern bobwhite quail with dietary methoxychlor (MXC) exposure (0, 5 and 10 ppm) beginning in adults (P1), continuing in their offspring (F1), with F2 offspring raised on control diet. MXC exposure impaired male sexual behavior, hypothalamic catecholamines and plasma steroid hormones. Moreover, MXC exposure had reproductive consequences observable at both the lower and higher doses of MXC in F1 and F2 generations. These data demonstrate that embryonic EDC exposure interferes with sexual differentiation of neural systems that direct reproduction.

The effects of asymmetrical hatching behaviors on the development of turning bias and footedness in domestic chicks, bobwhite quail, and Japanese quail chicks were examined. Control tests with incubator reared domestic chicks and bobwhite quail revealed significant individual and population left-side turning bias and right footedness. When late stage hatching behaviors were disrupted, population laterality was not evident and individual laterality was reduced. By contrast, Japanese quail chicks demonstrated no population turning bias or footedness and only weak individual biases. Disruption of hatch behaviors further decreased laterality. Examination of discarded eggshells showed significant differences in the degree of rotation made to cut out of the egg by Japanese quail versus domestic chicks and bobwhite quail. Taken together these findings suggest that the counterclockwise hatching behaviors that are characteristic of many precocial bird species serve to facilitate the development of motor laterality at both the individual and population level.

Avian vacuolar myelinopathy (AVM) is a neurologic disease primarily affecting bald eagles (Haliaeetus leucocephalus) and American coots (Fulica americana). The disease was first characterized in bald eagles in Arkansas in 1994 and then in American coots in 1996. To date, AVM has been confirmed in six additional avian species. Attempts to identify the etiology of AVM have been unsuccessful to date. The objective of this study was to evaluate dermal and oral routes of exposure of birds to hydrilla (Hydrilla verticillata) and associated materials to evaluate their ability to induce AVM. Mallards (Anas platyrhynchos) were used in all trials; bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) also were used in one fresh hydrilla material exposure trial. Five trials were conducted, including two fresh hydrilla material exposure trials, two cyanobacteria exposure trials, and a frozen hydrilla material exposure trial. The cyanobacteria exposure trials and frozen hydrilla material trial involved gavaging mallards with either Pseudanabaena catenata (live culture), Hapalosiphon fontinalis, or frozen hydrilla material with both cyanobacteria species present. With the exception of one fresh hydrilla exposure trial, results were negative or inconclusive. In the 2002 hydrilla material exposure trial, six of nine treated ducks had histologic lesions of AVM. This established the first cause-effect link between aquatic vegetation and AVM and provided evidence supporting an aquatic source for the causal agent.

One of the factors contributing to failure of avian embryos to hatch is the positioning of the embryo at the end of incubation in such a manner that emergence from the egg is inhibited. Abnormal positions, or malpositions, may also be associated with other problems without directly affecting the ability of the chick to hatch. The effect of strain, breeder age, and gender of embryo on incidence of malpositions before hatching was determined in broiler embryos. The effect of strain, breeder age, pre-incubation egg storage, setting orientation, and turning during incubation on incidence of malpositions before hatching was determined in bobwhite quail embryos. Although there were variations among strains and between genders for incidence of malpositions, they were not statistically significant. Differences among settings and evaluators were as great as strain effects. No significant strain or breeder age effect on malposition incidence was found in quail. Long-term pre-incubation storage increased the incidence of quail embryos with head between the thighs, possibly related to delayed embryonic development. Setting quail eggs with the small end up resulted in 75% of the embryos with head in the small end of the egg. Eggs set normally but not turned had increased incidences of head in small end, beak away from air cell, and head over wing embryonic malpositions. Therefore, in these studies, the incidence of malpositions was affected by pre-incubation egg storage, egg orientation, and turning, whereas it was not affected by strain, embryo gender, and breeder age.

The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of avian influenza viruses (AIV) in bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) populations from the rolling plains of Texas, U. S. A. A total of 1320 swab samples (652 tracheal swabs and 668 cloacal swabs) and 44 serum samples were collected from wild-captured or hunter-harvested bobwhite quail from November 2009 to April 2011 at the Rolling Planes Quail Research Ranch, Fisher County, Texas, U. S. A. The presence of AIV in the swabs was determined by real-time reverse-transcription-PCR (rRT-PCR) and all samples positive or suspicious by rRT-PCR were further processed for virus isolation in embryonated chicken eggs. A total of 18 (1.4%) swab samples tested positive for AIV by rRT-PCR (cycle threshold [Ct] values35): 13 cloacal swabs (1.9%) and 5 tracheal swabs (0.8%). In addition, 100 (7.6%) swab samples were considered suspicious (Ct values 35.1-40): 69 cloacal swabs (10.3%) and 31 tracheal swabs (4.7%). No virus was isolated from any of the rRT-PCR-positive or suspicious samples tested. Additionally, 44 serum samples were screened for AIV antibodies and were negative. The results presented here indicate low prevalence of AIV in wild populations of bobwhite quail.

Although a number of studies have demonstrated the effects of altered prenatal experience on subsequent behavioral development, how these effects are achieved remains a topic of enduring interest. The present study examined the immediate effects of unimodal and multimodal prenatal sensory stimulation on physiological and behavioral arousal in bobwhite quail embryos. Embryos were videotaped and their heart rate was monitored during a 4-min exposure period to (a) no supplemental sensory stimulation, (b) unimodal auditory stimulation, (c) unimodal visual stimulation, (d) two sources of concurrent auditory stimulation, or (e) concurrent auditory/visual stimulation. Results indicated that quail embryos' overall activity levels and heart rate can be significantly affected by the type of prenatal sensory stimulation provided during the period prior to hatching. In particular, multimodal stimulation increased both behavioral activity levels and heart rate compared to controls. Across the unimodal and intramodal groups, however, behavioral and physiological measures revealed different patterns of activity in response to supplemental sensory stimulation, highlighting the value of using multiple levels of analysis in exploring arousal mechanisms involved in prenatal perceptual responsiveness.

Global warming is likely to alter reproductive success of ground-nesting birds that lay eggs normally left unattended for days or even weeks before actual parental incubation, especially in already warm climates. The native North American bobwhite quail (Colinus virginianus) is such a species, and pre-incubation quail eggs may experience temperatures ≥45°C. Yet, almost nothing is known about embryonic survival after such high pre-incubation temperatures. Freshly laid bobwhite quail eggs were exposed during a 12 day pre-incubation period to one of five thermal regimes: low oscillating temperatures (25–40°C, mean = 28.9°C), high oscillating temperatures (30–45°C, mean = 33.9°C), low constant temperatures (28.85°C), high constant temperatures (mean = 33.9°C), or commercially employed pre-incubation temperatures (20°C). After treatment, eggs were then incubated at a standard 37.5°C to determine subsequent effects on embryonic development rate, survival, water loss, hatching, and embryonic oxygen consumption. Both quantity of heating degree hours during pre-incubation and specific thermal regime (oscillating vs. non-oscillating) profoundly affected important aspects of embryo survival and indices of development and growth Pre-incubation quail eggs showed a remarkable tolerance to constant high temperatures (up to 45°C), surviving for 4.5±0.3 days of subsequent incubation, but high oscillating pre-incubation temperature increased embryo survival (mean survival 12.2±1.8 days) and led to more rapid development than high constant temperature (maximum 38.5°C), even though both groups experienced the same total heating degree-hours. Oxygen consumption was ~200–300 μl O2.egg.min-1 at hatching in all groups, and was not affected by pre-incubation conditions. Oscillating temperatures, which are the norm for pre-incubation quail eggs in their natural habitat, thus enhanced survival at higher temperatures. However, a 5°C increase in pre-incubation temperature, which equates to the predicted long-term increases of 5°C or more, nonetheless reduced hatching rate by approximately 50%. Thus, while pre-incubation bobwhite eggs may be resiliant to moderate oscillating temperature increases, global warming will likely severely impact wild bobwhite quail populations, especially in their strongholds in southern latitudes.