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To authenticate to the full-text of this article, please visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2010.00652.x Byline: Theresa A. Morgan (1), Lee Anna Clark (1) Abstract: ABSTRACT Dependency plays an important role in both normal and abnormal personality, but the construct remains loosely defined, both in clinical practice and the research literature. Moreover, although a number of measures purport to measure trait dependency, little agreement exists as to the structure of dependency within or across these instruments. Furthermore, what constitutes the low end of trait dependency remains unclear. Five hundred nine undergraduates completed a battery of 14 dependency scales and subscales, a subset of whom (n=322) also completed a broad measure of personality pathology (SNAP-2). Exploratory factor analysis of the dependency measures yielded two correlated factors-Passive-Submissive and Active-Emotional dependency-as well as a third, unrelated factor, Detachment/Autonomy, all with differential correlates to the pathological personality traits of the SNAP-2. Taken together, these data suggest a clear, 2-factor model for trait dependency that is distinct from detachment/autonomy. Author Affiliation: (1)University of Iowa Article note: Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Theresa A. Morgan, University of Iowa, Department of Psychology, 11 Seashore Hall, Iowa City, IA 52246. Email: theresa-morgan@uiowa.edu.

Existing structural models of psychopathology need to be expanded to include additional diagnostic constructs beyond mood, anxiety, substance use, and antisocial behavior disorders. The goal of this study was to locate eating disorders within a hierarchical structural model of psychopathology that is anchored by broad Internalizing and Externalizing factors. Participants were female adolescent twins (N = 1,434) from the Minnesota Twin Family Study. The authors compared the fit of 4 models in which eating disorders (a) defined their own diagnostic class, (b) represented a subclass within Internalizing, (c) formed a subclass within Externalizing, and (d) were allowed to cross-load on both Internalizing and Externalizing. In the best fitting model, eating disorders formed a subfactor within Internalizing. These findings underscore the value of developing more comprehensive empirically based models of psycho- pathology to increase researchers' understanding of diverse mental disorders. Keywords: eating disorders, disordered eating, comorbidity, diagnosis, classification DOI: 10.1037/a0019189

The authors tested the effects of continuation-phase cognitive therapy (C-CT) on remission and recovery from recurrent major depressive disorder, defined as 6 weeks and 8 months, respectively, of continuously absent or minimal symptoms. Responders to acute-phase cognitive therapy were randomized to 8 months of C-CT (n = 41) or assessment control (n = 43), and they were followed 16 additional months (R. B. Jarrett et al., 2001). Relative to controls, a few more patients in C-CT remitted (88% vs. 97%), and significantly more recovered (62% vs. 84%). All patients without remission and recovery relapsed, but most patients who remitted (60%) and who recovered (75%) did not later relapse or recur. The authors discuss the importance of defining efficacious treatment as producing remission and recovery. Keywords: major depressive disorder, remission, recovery, cognitive therapy, continuation-phase cognitive therapy

To purchase or authenticate to the full-text of this article, please visit this link: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-6494.2008.00531.x Byline: David Watson (1), Lee Anna Clark (1), Michael Chmielewski (1) Abstract: ABSTRACT There is increasing agreement that the current categorical system of personality disorders (PDs) in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (DSM-IV; American Psychiatric Association, 2000) should be replaced by a trait dimensional scheme in DSM-V. In particular, the consensus appears to be converging on a hierarchical Big Four model. The broad factors that form the apex of this hierarchy are essentially maladaptive variants of the Big Five traits of normal personality, minus Openness. We argue that this Big Four model is incomplete, however, in that it fails to model characteristics related to the 'odd or eccentric' Cluster A PDs adequately. We report the results of three studies that examine these odd, eccentric characteristics in relation to basic dimensions of normal and abnormal personality. The results of these studies establish the existence of an Oddity factor that is (a) broader than the Cluster A traits and (b) distinct from Openness and the other Big Five dimensions. Consequently, its addition yields an alternative five-factor model of personality pathology (considering only abnormal traits) and an expanded, integrated Big Six taxonomy that subsumes both normal and abnormal personality characteristics. Author Affiliation: (1)University of Iowa Article note: Correspondence should be sent to David Watson, Department of Psychology, E11 Seashore Hall, University of Iowa, Iowa City, IA, 52242-1407; E-mail: david-watson@uiowa.edu.

Relapse and recurrence following response to acute-phase treatment for major depressive disorder (MDD) are prevalent and costly. In a meta-analysis of 28 studies including 1,880 adults, the authors reviewed the world's published literature on cognitive--behavioral therapies (CT) aimed at preventing relapse--recurrence in MDD. Results indicate that after discontinuation of acute-phase treatment, many responders to CT relapse--recur (29% within 1 year and 54% within 2 years). These rates appear comparable to those associated with other depression-specific psychotherapies but lower than those associated with pharmacotherapy. Among acute-phase treatment responders, continuation-phase CT reduced relapse-recurrence compared with assessment only at the end of continuation treatment (21% reduction) and at follow-up (29% reduction). Continuation-phase CT also reduced relapse-recurrence compared with other active continuation treatments at the end of continuation treatment (12% reduction) and at follow-up (14% reduction). The authors discuss implications for research and patient care and suggest directions, with methodological refinements, for future studies. Keywords: depression, relapse and recurrence, cognitive--behavioral therapy, continuation and maintenance treatment, meta-anaiysis

The authors examined the amount and durability of change in the cognitive content of 156 adult outpatients with recurrent major depressive disorder after treatment with cognitive therapy. The pre-post magnitude of change was large for the Attributional Style Questionnaire Failure composite (d=0.79), Dysfunctional Attitudes Scale (d=1.05), and Self-Efficacy Scale (d=0.83), and small for the Attributional Style Questionnaire Success composite (d=0.30). Changes in cognitive content were clinically significant, as defined by their 64%-87% scores overlapping with score distributions from community dwellers. Improvement was durable over a 2-year follow-up. Changes in negative cognitive content could be detected early and distinguished responders from nonresponders. In responders, continuation-phase cognitive therapy was associated with further improvements on only 1 measure of cognitive content. Early changes in negative cognitive content did not predict later changes in depressive symptoms, which the authors discuss in the context of methodological challenges and the cognitive theory of depression. Keywords: depression, cognition, acute phase cognitive therapy, continuation phase cognitive therapy

Personality and psychopathology long have been viewed as related domains, but the precise nature of their relations remains unclear. Through most of the 20th century, they were studied as separate fields; within psychopathology, clinical syndromes were separated from personality disorders in 1980. This division led to the revelation of substantial overlap among disorders both within and across axes and to the joint study of normal and abnormal personality. The author reviews these literatures and proposes an integrative framework to explain personality-psychopathology relations: Three broad, innate temperament dimensions--negative affectivity, positive affectivity, and disinhibition--differentiate through both biologically and environmentally based developmental processes into a hierarchical personality trait structure and, at their extremes, are risk factors (diatheses) for psychopathology, especially given adverse life experiences (stress). Keywords: temperament, psychopathology, personality, taxonomy, DSM-V

The authors tested neighborhood context, negative life events, and negative affectivity as predictors of the onset of major depression among 720 African American women. Neighborhood-level economic disadvantage (e.g., percentage of residents below the poverty line) and social disorder (e.g., delinquency, drug use) predicted the onset of major depression when controlling for individual-level demographic characteristics. Neighborhood-level disadvantage/disorder interacted with negative life events, such that women who experienced recent negative life events and lived in high disadvantage/disorder neighborhoods were more likely to become depressed than were those who lived in more benign settings, both concurrently and over a 2-year period. Neighborhood disadvantage/disorder can be viewed as a vulnerability factor that increases susceptibility to depression following the experience of negative life events.

The authors examined the validity of sudden gains identified with T. Z. Tang and R. J. DeRubeis's (1999) method in 2 clinical data sets that involved treatment of major depressive disorder (N = 227). Sudden gains replicated among self- and clinician reports of depressive symptoms and predicted better psychosocial functioning at the acute phase treatment end point, in support of their validity. However, sudden gains occurred with roughly the same moderate frequency in pill placebo and pharmacotherapy with clinical management as in cognitive therapy. Furthermore, sudden gains predicted more depressive symptoms and negative failure attributions in longitudinal follow-up of responders to acute phase cognitive therapy. On the basis of these findings, the authors conceptualize sudden gains as one of several possible patterns of acute phase treatment response.

Research indicates that patient self-ratings of interpersonal problems, temperament and personality traits were not significantly influenced by the presence of psychopathology, a finding counter to the intuitively expected notion that psychopathology has a negative impact on self-awareness.

Green, Goldman, and Salovey (1993) challenged the view that 'positive affect' and 'negative affect' are largely uncorrelated dimensions. On the basis of factor analytic studies of happiness and sadness, and of positive and negative emotional activation (PA and NA), they claimed that a 'largely bipolar structure of affect' (p. 1029) emerges when random and nonrandom error are taken into account. A reappraisal of their own findings and confirmatory analysis of additional data do not support this claim. Happiness and sadness form a largely unidimensional bipolar structure, but PA and NA are relatively independent. However, exploratory analyses yield a three-level hierarchy incorporating in one structure a general bipolar Happiness-Versus-Unhappiness dimension, the relatively independent PA and NA dimensions at the level below it, and discrete emotions at the base. We emphasize the heuristic value of a hierarchical perspective.

Using a recent model (Watson, Clark, & Harkness, 1994), we examined implications of mothers' personality (N = 103) for parenting and children's developmental outcomes, using multiple personality self-reports, lengthy, repeated naturalistic observations, and mothers' reports about parenting and their child. Mothers high in negative emotionality and disagreeableness showed more negative affect and their children were more defiant and angry; they also reported more power-assertive and less nurturant parenting, as well as less secure attachment, more behavioral problems, and lower internalization of rules in their children. Mothers high in constraint and California Psychological Inventory (CPI) socialization reported more secure attachment and better internalization of rules; CPI socialization also correlated negatively with observed maternal verbal power assertion and children's defiance and anger, and positively with compliance. Regression analyses indicated that mothers' personality, particularly negative emotionality and socialization, influenced broadly conceptualized adaptive child outcomes, even after the influence of parenting was controlled.

A strong convergent and discriminant pattern exists between matched scales of the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality and the Dimensional Assessment of Personality Pathology-Basic Questionnaire (DAPP-BQ). Analysis of the instruments' structures shows the existence of five factors, four of which correspond to neuroticism, introversion, agreeableness and conscientiousness. All the scales fail to show similar level of convergence.

The main aim of a scale development is to provide a valid measure for a construct. An important role can be played by factor analysis in guaranteeing the unidimensionality and discriminant validity of scales. In the choice scale items, the aim is more for unidimensionality, than for internal consistency. Theoretical principles can be used to optimize the construct validity of psychological measurement scales and subscales.

A tripartite model enables the grouping of depression symptoms to three types, namely, the indications of somatic tension and arousal that are specific to anxiety, nonspecific symptoms of general stress and symptoms of anhedonia and low Positive Affect unique to depression. The results from this model are consistent with the MASQ Anxious Arousal and Anhedonic Depression scales. Thus, an understanding of the several symptoms enables a comprehension of the depression phenomena.

The tripartite model, developed by L.A. Clark and D. Watson to review temperament, personality, mood and anxiety disorders, reveals that neuroticism is responsible for the development of anxiety and depression. Extroversion or positive affectivity also contributes to depression. Anxiety sensitivity, attributional style, sociotropy, self criticism and dependency are also responsible for certain personality disorders.

Research in trait psychology includes searching for a deep-rooted, coherent personality structure which is important for researchers analyzing psychopathology and personality. Trait concepts are used in psychopathological research, although many concepts do not encompass the multi-faceted structures of personality. The lack of understanding of personality traits is due to the frequent use of and the professional loopholes in the trait concepts.

These studies examined relations between social activity and state and trait measures of Positive and Negative Affect. In Study 1 Ss completed scales relevant to 3-factor models of personality and a weekly mood and social activity questionnaire for 13 weeks. In Study 2 Ss completed measures of the 5-factor model of personality and a daily mood and social activity survey for 6-7 weeks. In within- and between-Ss analyses, socializing correlated significantly with state measures of Positive Affect and with trait measures of Extraversion/Positive Emotionality. These relations were relatively general across various types of positive affect and social events; however, specific types of social events also were differentially related to affect. In contrast, social activity had no consistent association with measures of Negative Affect or the other personality dimensions. The results support a temperamental view of Extraversion.

In this article we investigate relations between general and specific measures of self-rated affect and markers of Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Agreeableness, and Conscientiousness. Replicating previous research, we found strong and pervasive associations between Neuroticism, its facets, and the various negative affects; and between Extraversion, its facets, and the positive affects. Conscientiousness also had a significant, independent relation with general positive affect, but this effect was entirely due to the specific affect of attentiveness, which was more strongly related to Conscientiousness than Extraversion. Conversely, only the achievement facet of Conscientiousness correlated broadly with the positive affects. Finally, hostility had a strong independent association with (low) Agreeableness. The results for Neuroticism and Extraversion further clarify the temperamental basis of these higher order trait dimensions; whereas those obtained for Agreeableness and Conscientiousness illustrate the importance of examining personality-affect relations at the lower order level.

Watson and Tellegen (1985) proposed a hierarchical model of self-rated affect in which 2 broad, general dimensions--Negative Affect and Positive Affect--are each composed of several correlated yet ultimately distinguishable emotions. As a partial test of this model, we conducted 4 studies examining relations among measures of fear, sadness, hostility, and guilt through a series o multitrait-multimethod matrixes. Consistent with a hierarchical model, all 4 negative affects showed significant convergent validity and adequate discriminant validity, indicating that they represent meaningful and differentiable psychological constructs. However, the measures were also consistently and substantially interrelated, thereby demonstrating the existence of a strong higher order Negative Affect factor in self-report data. Results demonstrate the importance of assessing both levels of the hierarchical structure in studies of self-rated affect.

This study tested a hierarchical model of emotional experience by examining relations between self- and peer ratings on 8 factor-analytically derived affect scales. One hundred fifty Ss were assessed in 5-person groups, so that each self-rater was also judged by 4 peers. The raters were generally well-acquainted, but a minority of the judges knew their targets less well. The data showed both higher and lower order factors and thus supported a hierarchical view of rated affect. Specifically, (a) general Negative Affect and Positive Affect facotrs emerged in both the self-and peer ratings; (b) significant self-peer agreement was found for all 8 specific affect scales; and (c) despite the presence of substantial general factor variance, most of the scales also showed significant discriminant validity. Other analyses demonstrated that self-peer agreement increased with the additon of more peer raters and with greater judge-target acquaintance. Implications of the results for the validity of self- and peer ratings of affect are discussed.

Green and Salovey agree with us that happiness and sadness are strongly bipolar, and that Positive and Negative Activation are not. However, Green and Salovey subscribe to the two-dimensional circumplex, a model we find wanting. Actually, the problems they discuss arise from the limitations of the circumplex rather than from issues fundamental to affective structure. And they do not consider the evidence, reported in our target article, that supports an alternative to the circumplex: a three-level hierarchical model. In this reply, we take a closer look at the empirical findings supporting this model, and we emphasize its heuristic promise.

Conceptual overlap and heterogeneity were noted as weaknesses in the clinical scales of the Minnesota Multiple Personality Inventory's second edition (MMPI - 2). The Restructured clinical (RC) scales were developed to address these concerns since they were less intercorrelated, produced conceptually clearer relations with measures of personality and psychopathology, and yielded greater incremental utility than the clinical scales.

Undergraduates who completed the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP) twice, 1 week apart, underwent a validation study of a computerized adaptive (CAT) version of the SNAP. Lower precision and validity were provided by CAT administration as compared to paper-and-pencil (P&P) administration.

We compared the utility of several trait models for describing personality disorder in a heterogeneous clinical sample (N = 94). Participants completed the Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality (SNAP; Clark, 1993b), a self-report measure that assesses traits relevant to personality disorder, and two measures of the Five-Factor Model: the Revised NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI-R; Costa and McCrae, 1992) and the Big Five Inventory (BFI; John, Donahue, & Kentle, 1991). Regression analyses indicated substantial overlap between the SNAP scales and the NEO-PI-R facets. In addition, use of the NEO-PI-R facets afforded substantial improvement over the Five-Factor Model domains in predicting interview-based ratings of DSM-IV personality disorder (American Psychiatric Association, 1994), such that the NEO facets and the SNAP scales demonstrated roughly equivalent levels of predictive power. Results support assessment of the full range of NEO-PI-R facets over the Five-Factor Model domains for both research and clinical use.

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) developed by the American Psychiatric Association (1994) is a compelling effort at a best approximation to date of a scientifically based nomenclature, but even its authors have acknowledged that its diagnoses and criterion sets are highly debatable. Well-meaning clinicians, theorists, and researchers could find some basis for fault in virtually every sentence, due in part to the absence of adequate research to guide its construction. Some points of disagreement, however, are more fundamental than others. The authors discuss issues that cut across individual diagnostic categories and that should receive particular attention in DSM-V: (a) the process by which the diagnostic manual is developed, (b) the differentiation from normal psychological functioning, (c) the differentiation among diagnostic categories, (d) cross-sectional vs. longitudinal diagnoses, and (e) the role of laboratory instruments.

In this longitudinal, multimethod investigation, the authors examined mothers' personality and its interaction with infants' negative emotionality as predictors of parenting behavior. When infants were 8-10 months old (N = 112), mothers completed personality self-reports, and the authors observed infants' negative emotionality in both standard procedures and naturalistic daily contexts. When infants were 13-15 months old (N = 108), the authors observed two aspects of parenting, power assertion and maternal responsiveness, in mother-child interactive contexts. Maternal personality alone and also in interaction with child emotionality predicted future parenting behaviors. The longitudinal links established between personality and parenting behaviors indicate the predictive utility of personality. Findings also highlight the bidirectionality of the early parent-child relationship.