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Domain theory suggests that moral rules and conventions are perceived differently and elicit a different response. A special procedure was designed to test this hypothesis in a laboratory setting using a deontic reasoning task. The goal was to gain insight into the cognitive and metacognitive processes of deontic reasoning from simple deontic premises. In the 3x2x2 within-subjects design, we varied rule-content (moral, conventional, abstract), rule-type (obligation, permission) and the induced dilemma (punishment dilemma, reward dilemma). Participants (N = 78) were presented with 12 laws. After memorizing a law, eight cases were presented to participants so that they make a quick judgment. Participants were tasked with punishing rule-violators, ignoring rule-conformists, and rewarding rule-supererogation. Response times (RT) and accuracy were measured for each judgment, and final confidence was measured after a set of judgments. No differences were expected between rule-types, except for superior performance for moral content and punishment dilemmas. RT correlated negatively with confidence levels, while accuracy correlated positively. Moral reasoning was more accurate than conventional and abstract reasoning, and produced higher confidence levels. Better performance was found for punishment dilemmas than reward dilemmas, likely due to the presence of a cheater-detection module; but the differences were not found in moral reasoning. Moral reasoning was also independent of rule-type, while conventional and abstract reasoning produced superior performance in obligation-type than in permission-type rules. A large drop-off in accuracy was detected for rules that allowed undesirable behaviour, a phenomenon we termed the "deontic blind spot". However, this blind spot was not present in moral reasoning. Three lines of evidence indicate a qualitative difference between the moral and other deontic domains: (1) performance for moral content was independent of rule-type, (2) moral content produced an equal activation of violator- and altruist-detection modules, and (3) moral content produces higher levels of confidence., Teorija domena pretpostavlja da se moralna i konvencionalna pravila drugačije percipiraju i rezultiraju različitim odgovorima. Osmišljena je procedura za testiranje ove hipoteze u laboratorijskim uvjetima koristeći zadatak deontičkog rasuđivanja. Cilj je bio dobiti uvid u kognitivne i metakognitivne procese deontičkog rasuđivanja polazeći od jednostavnih deontičkih premisa. Korištenjem nacrta 3x2x2 s ponovljenim mjerenjima manipulirali smo sadržajem pravila (moralna, konvencionalna, apstraktna), tipom pravila (obaveze, dopuštenja) i induciranom dilemom (dilema kažnjavanja, dilema nagrađivanja). Sudionicima (N = 78) prikazano je 12 zakona. Nakon što su zapamtili zakon, prezentirano im je osam slučajeva za koje su morali donijeti brzu odluku. Zadatak im je bio kažnjavanje prekršitelja, ignoriranje konformista i nagrađivanje supererogatornih. Mjereno je vrijeme odgovora i točnost za svaku odluku te konačna sigurnost nakon jednog niza odluka. Nisu očekivane razlike između tipova pravila, ali je očekivana bolja izvedba kod moralnih sadržaja i dilema kažnjavanja. Vrijeme je odgovora bilo negativno, a točnost pozitivno povezana s razinom sigurnosti. Moralno rasuđivanje bilo je točnije od konvencionalnog i apstraktnog te je dovelo do više razine sigurnosti. Bolja je izvedba utvrđena pri dilemama kažnjavanja u usporedbi s nagrađivanjem, vjerojatno zbog prisutnosti modula za detekciju varalica, ali te razlike nisu utvrđene pri moralnom rasuđivanju. Moralno je rasuđivanje također bilo neovisno o tipu pravila, dok su konvencionalno i apstraktno rasuđivanje doveli do bolje izvedbe pri obavezama nego dopuštenjima. Velik je pad u točnosti utvrđen za pravila koja su dopuštala nepoželjna ponašanja, što je fenomen koji smo nazvali "deontička slijepa pjega". Ipak, ova slijepa pjega nije bila prisutna pri moralnom rasuđivanju. Zaključno, rezultati upućuju na kvalitativne razlike između moralne domene i ostalih: (1) izvedba pri moralnom sadržaju nije ovisila o tipu pravila, (2) moralni je sadržaj proizveo jednaku aktivaciju modula detekcije varalica i altruista te (3) moralni je sadržaj proizveo viši stupanj sigurnosti.

Straipsnyje nagrinėjamas pradiniame ugdyme vykstantis metamokymasis, kaip svarbus kognityvinis procesas, kurio metu besimokantieji geba mokytis savarankiškai, o įgytos žinios ir įgūdžiai padeda tapti mokančiais mokytis asmenimis. Tyrime analizuojami pradinių klasių mokinių savarankiško mokymosi komponentai, įgyvendinimo praktikos, problematika. Tyrimas pasirinktas atsižvelgiant į edukologijos mokslo tyrimuose augantį dėmesį metamokymosi strategijų taikymui ir kylantiems iššūkiams ankstyvame amžiuje. The article analyses the self-study of primary school students, aims to name the applied meta-learning methods, the challenges that arise and the further direction of research that would allow developing the application of meta-learning in primary education. The research aim - to reveal what research is being carried out, what we know about the self-study of primary education students in Europe and other countries. Research data and theoretical reviews from electronic education databases of Academic Search Complete (EBSCO), Cambridge Core, Education Source (EBSCO), ERIC and Science Direct were analysed in order to achieve the aim of the research. To create an overview of different studies, the articles were content-encoded by briefly describing the main features and results of each study. The results of the scientists of educational science research allow stating that even at an early age, meta-learning has a positive impact on the development of children in the fields of reading, language learning, math, science and problem-solving. Based on the results of the study, there is need to promote meta-learning as a tool to develop cognitive and metacognitive skills and to face the challenges of learning in the 21st century. The analysis and conclusions of scientific sources are provided in the article as a base for further studies on meta-learning, aiming that this learning paradigm would be developed and would allow to overcome the emerging difficulties of learning and become individuals who know how to learn.

In the article , I will argue that metacognition plays an important role in decision - making not only as direct online monitoring and control of decision - making processes but also by enabling us to influence our decisions and actions – and m e n tal states and processes, related to them – i n an offline manner. That is, offline metacognition allows us to observe, refer to and, to a certain degree, exert influence on me n tal states and proce sses related to our decisions and actions in the way of be ing removed, decoupled from the task/decision at hand and present time demands . As such , it enable s us to observe, f orm thoughts and have feelings about me n tal states and processes directly related to our future decisions , to plan our future decisions, to reflect on our past choices , and to think and have feelings about our broader goals, desires, and personal values that are indirectly related to our decisions. To illustrate the importance of offline metacognition in decision - making , I will firstly review and discuss some experimental findings on implementation intentions (“ decisions about the future” ) and anticipated emotions ( beliefs about future emotional states related to outcomes of our decisions ). Secondly , I will argue that our ability to reflect (t hink and feel) on our broader goals, desires and personal values – that represent a kind of structure into which our specific decisions are embedded – reveals how offline metacognition can exert influence on our decisions also in an indirect way . All in al l, I will try to show that our ability to refer to our own minds in an offline way – be it to mental states and processes directly or indirectly related to specific decisions – is essential for us to decide, as we decide, and act, as we act.

This paper deals with different theoretical views and research regarding metacognition, its components and relations to cognition, conceptual discrepancy as well as opposing research results. Special attention was paid to the relation between metacognitive knowledge and the regulation of cognitive strategies. Reflexive awareness about personal cognitive processes is emphasized, but research discrepancies are apparent in regard to cognitive regulation. Research results focused on development of personal learning awareness and regulative skill involvement in the educational process (planning, monitoring and evaluating) are presented. A discussion was also focused on various views on relations between metacognition and the self which are of special importance for providing motivation in learning. Research data show that metacognitive awareness correlates with self. Metacognitive training affects development of the control experience and self-efficiency. The role of metacognition is emphasized as important for understanding relationship between cognition and motivation, which also affects learning self-regulation development. The paper emphasizes the significance of further study of metacognition and the possibilities for its use in the educational process. Research show that both metacognitive knowledge and regulation may be beneficial for: problem solving in learning processes, development of learning strategies and student achievement. U radu se razmatraju različita teorijska shvatanja i istraživački nalazi o metakogniciji, njenim komponentama i odnosima sa kognicijom, konceptualna neusaglašenost, kao i protivrečni istraživački nalazi. Posebna pažnja posvećena je odnosu metakognitivnog znanja i regulacije kognitivnih strategija. Većina istraživanja naglašava svesnost o sopstvenim kognitivnim procesima, dok se razlike u istraživanjima pojavljuju u vezi sa regulacijom kognicije. Prikazani su nalazi istraživanja usmerenih na razvoj svesnosti o sopstvenom učenju, kao i na uključivanje regulativnih veština (planiranja praćenja i evaluacije) u obrazovni proces. Razmatrana su različita shvatanja o odnosima metakognicije sa selfom, i njihov značaj za podsticanje motivacije u učenju. Istraživanja pokazuju da je metakognitivna svesnost u vezi sa selfom. Metakognitivna obuka utiče na razvijanje doživljaja kontrole i samoefikasnosti. Ističe se značaj metakognicije za razumevanje odnosa između kognicije i motivacije, što takodje utiče na podsticanje samoregulacije učenja. Ukazano je na značaj proučavanja metakognicije i mogućnosti primene u obrazovnom procesu. Istraživanja pokazuju da i metakognitivno znanje i regulacija mogu biti korisni za rešavanje problema u učenju, za razvijanje strategija učenja i za postignuće učenika.

Although many quantitative studies have been carried out on various aspects of sport, it seems our understanding of them has not advanced considerably. Because of that there has been a greater acceptance of qualitative methods and with that also the value of employing phenomenological approaches in the academic discipline of sport psychology has increased in recent years. Phenomenological psychology can allow us to look more closely to athletes’ experiences and therefore plays a mediating role between applied and theoretical aspects of sport psychology. We find its special importance at phenomena connected to peak performance and different stages of consciousness.