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Erikson's psychosocial stage model posits that identity formation is a key developmental task for adolescents, and that successfully resolving the identity versus role confusion crisis at this time of life has important impacts on psychosocial development through adulthood. However, little empirical work has tested the consequences of early-life identity development for progression through the subsequent psychosocial stages in Erikson's model. The purpose of the present study was to test whether identity resolution measured during emerging adulthood predicted later developmental trajectories of intimacy, generativity, and integrity across adulthood. We used data from four cohorts of participants in the Rochester Adult Longitudinal Study (RALS; N = 1,224), with up to five assessments spanning the twenties through the sixties. Latent growth curve modeling was used to estimate developmental trajectories for intimacy, generativity, and integrity, and to test the association between emerging adulthood identity resolution and growth parameters for each psychosocial outcome. Findings suggested that individuals with higher emerging adulthood identity resolution also experienced high levels of intimacy, generativity, and integrity in emerging adulthood, and these levels remained consistently high across adulthood. In contrast, those with lower identity resolution in emerging adulthood experienced lower initial levels of intimacy, generativity, and integrity, but faster growth over time. As a result, these trajectories appeared to nearly converge by the time participants were in their sixties, suggesting that one's emerging adulthood identity has less importance over time, and that individuals who struggled more with identity formation in adolescence and emerging adulthood are able to make up for it later in life. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Background and ObjectivesThis study introduces a theoretical framework for assessing age inclusivity in higher education environments and describes the Age-Friendly Inventory and Campus Climate Survey (ICCS). The ICCS measures age-friendly campus practices as reported by administrators, perceptions of age-friendliness by campus constituents, and the fit between objective practices and subjective perceptions as an overall indicator of age inclusivity.Research Design and MethodsThe ICCS was administered at a public university in the northeastern United States. Administrators completed the Inventory of potential age-friendly campus practices associated with their units. Campus constituents (n = 688) completed the online Campus Climate Survey to assess subjective awareness of these practices, perceived age-friendliness, and personal beliefs about age inclusivity.ResultsThe Inventory yielded a score of 66% of potential age-friendly practices in place as reported by administrators. The Campus Climate Survey showed low overall perceptions of age-friendliness and varied beliefs about age inclusivity on campus. Fit was measured by comparing the Inventory practices and Campus Climate Survey awareness of the existence of 47 of 73 potential practices. Convergence on this campus showed an awareness of 36% of age-friendly practices.Discussion and ImplicationsBased on the proposed theoretical framework for age inclusivity, the ICCS offers a way of assessing the age-friendliness of the objective environment across campus functions, the subjective environment across campus constituents, and the fit between subjective and objective environments on campuses. The ICCS will help higher education institutions identify strengths and challenges for advancing age inclusivity.

Objective: The Halstead Category Test (HCT) has been demonstrated to be sensitive to executive dysfunction in adults and children. Children with a history of significant prenatal alcohol exposure (...

The current manuscript replicates and extends the few existing studies of generativity in later adulthood with regard to two aims: (a) to model individual differences in the development of generativity into early late life and (b) to examine the relationship between development in generativity and development in well-being into late midlife and early late life. Data from the Rochester Adult Longitudinal Study (RALS) are used to address these aims in a preregistered secondary analysis of existing RALS data (see https://osf.io/syp2u). Analyses quantify individual development of generativity in a sample of 271 RALS participants who completed the Loyola Generativity Scale (LGS; McAdams & de St. Aubin, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1992, 62, p. 1003) and the Psychological Well-Being Scale (PWB; Ryff, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 1989a, 57, p. 1069) during the most recent two waves of the RALS (2000-2012). Generativity demonstrated substantial rank-order stability but no mean-level change. There was substantial variability in both stability and change. Dual score change models showed a robust concurrent relationship between generativity and well-being at the first assessment and meaningful correlated change over time. While demographic and social role covariates were not associated with study findings, one of the most important limitations of the RALS is the racial and ethnic homogeneity of the sample, which constrains generalizability and potentially may restrict the range of these variables. Results are discussed in the context of our current understanding of the development and impact of generativity in later adulthood, and directions for future research in this area are identified. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

The present study investigated the associations of well-being with engagement in illicit drug use, sexual risk taking, and impaired driving in a sample of 9,515 students from 30 U.S. colleges and universities. Participants completed measures of subjective well-being, psychological well-being, and eudaimonic well-being, and indicated how many times in the past 30 days that they had engaged in several illicit drug use, sexual risk, and impaired driving behaviors. Findings indicated that well-being was negatively associated with incidence of illicit drug use and some sexual risk behaviors, but not with incidence of drunk/drugged driving or riding with an impaired driver. Well-being was negatively related to frequency of casual sex, sex while drunk/high, drunk/drugged driving, and riding with an impaired driver. Associations of well-being were strongest for more dangerous types of drug use and sexual behavior and for riding with an impaired driver. Results are discussed in terms of implications for research and intervention development.

To date, there has been minimal focus in research on the intersection of aging and gender identity. However, this is quickly becoming a burgeoning area of exploration. It is known that transgender and gender diverse (TGD) people are at great risk for a host of physical and mental health issues, due to the unique experiences of discrimination and abuse faced by this population. Much of the research on the aging process is conducted from a cisgender-normative perspective, which leaves out examination of the lives of TGD older adults. This chapter focuses specifically on examining the research landscape with regard to identifying issues related to the experience of TGD elders. We argue that although there is significant evidence that TGD elders are vulnerable to unique risks, there are resilient individuals who have adapted to these challenges. Further, recent laws and public policies have begun to help to protect and improve the lives of older TGD people in the future. As such, we will explore recommendations for improvements in research, healthcare, and policies moving forward into the coming years.

Research methods in lifespan development include single-factor designs that either follow a single cohort of individuals over time or compare age groups at a single time point. The two basic types of studies involving the manipulation of the single factors of age, cohort, and time of measurement are longitudinal and cross-sectional. Each of these has advantages and disadvantages, but both are characterized by limitations because they cannot definitively separate the joint influences of age, cohort, and type of measurement. The third group of designs involves manipulation of two or more levels of each factor to permit inferences to be drawn that separate personal from social aging. The theoretical problems involved in both the single-factor and sequential designs combine with practical issues to present lifespan developmental researchers with a number of choices in approaching the variables of interest. The theoretical problems include the inevitable linking of personal with social aging, particularly evident in single-factor designs, and the fact that selective attrition leads to the differential availability of increasingly select older samples. Practical problems include the need to assign participants to appropriate age intervals and such clerical issues as the need to track participants in follow-up investigations. Researchers must also be aware of methodological issues related to task equivalence across individuals of different ages and the need to covary for potential confounds that could lead to differences across groups of participants due to such factors as education and health status. The increasing recognition of the need to address these issues is leading to a body of literature that reflects the growing sophistication of the field along with the more widespread availability of sophisticated analytic methods. As these improvements continue to raise the level of scholarship in the field, there will be a greater understanding of both ontogenetic change as well as the influence of context on development from childhood through later life.

While the AFU goals emphasize campus structures and practices (which can and should be evaluated), it is equally important to assess perceived age-friendliness by campus community members. Availability of academic and career services to students of all ages does not guarantee that older and younger students feel equally welcome and well-served. The Campus Climate Survey gathers the “perceived” data from faculty, staff, and students of all ages through a Likert-scale survey that asks perception questions about age-friendly services, facilities, and campus culture. Participants in this session will be shown how to use the CCS at their own institutions and learn its value through preliminary findings from 2,708 staff, student, and faculty responses from Massachusetts, such as: while the majority (68%) of campus staff members agreed that older adults feel welcome on campus, more than half (58%) anticipate facing age biases and challenges on campus as they age.

Linda G. Castillo, Miguel A. Cano, Myeongsun Yoon, Eunju Jung, Elissa J. Brown, Byron L.Zamboanga, Su Yeong Kim, Seth J. Schwartz, Que-Lam Huynh, Robert S. Weisskirch, andSusan Krauss WhitbourneOnline First Publication, March 2, 2015. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pas0000095CITATIONCastillo, L. G., Cano, M. A., Yoon, M., Jung, E., Brown, E. J., Zamboanga, B. L., Kim, S. Y.,Schwartz, S. J., Huynh, Q.-L., Weisskirch, R. S., & Whitbourne, S. K. (2015, March 2). FactorStructure and Factorial Invariance of the Multidimensional Acculturative Stress Inventory.Psychological Assessment. Advance online publication.http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/pas0000095

This study examined the latent personal-social identity profiles that emerged from simultaneous consideration of ethnic, national (United States), and personal identities among ethnic minority college students (N = 3,009) as well as how personal and social identities are jointly associated with self-esteem. Results indicated that the structure of personal-social identity profiles significantly differed across ethnicity, but also indicated some commonalities. The study identified three profiles among Blacks, four among Asian Americans, and two among Latinos. Some personal-social identity profiles were common across multiple ethnic groups, but others were unique within one specific ethnic group. Overall, the profiles indicated important associations between ethnic identity, U.S. identity, and personal identity. These profiles were linked with self-esteem such that individuals who reported high levels of multiple social and personal identities had the highest self-esteem compared to other profiles.

Prior person-centered research has consistently identified a subgroup of highly religious participants that uses significantly less alcohol when compared to the other subgroups. The construct of religious motivation is absent from existing examinations of the nuanced combinations of religiousness dimensions within persons, and alcohol expectancy valuations have yet to be included as outcome variables. Variable-centered approaches have found religious motivation and alcohol expectancy valuations to play a protective role against individuals’ hazardous alcohol use. The current study examined latent religiousness profiles and hazardous alcohol use in a large, multisite sample of ethnically diverse college students. The sample consisted of 7412 college students aged 18–25 (M age = 19.77, SD age = 1.61; 75 % female; 61 % European American). Three latent profiles were derived from measures of religious involvement, salience, and religious motivations: Quest-Intrinsic Religiousness (highest levels of salience, involvement, and quest and intrinsic motivations; lowest level of extrinsic motivation), Moderate Religiousness (intermediate levels of salience, involvement, and motivations) and Extrinsic Religiousness (lowest levels of salience, involvement, and quest and intrinsic motivations; highest level of extrinsic motivation). The Quest-Intrinsic Religiousness profile scored significantly lower on hazardous alcohol use, positive expectancy outcomes, positive expectancy valuations, and negative expectancy valuations, and significantly higher on negative expectancy outcomes, compared to the other two profiles. The Extrinsic and Moderate Religiousness profiles did not differ significantly on positive expectancy outcomes, negative expectancy outcomes, negative expectancy valuations, or hazardous alcohol use. The results advance existing research by demonstrating that the protective influence of religiousness on college students’ hazardous alcohol use may involve high levels on both quest and intrinsic religious motivation.

Casual video games (CVGs) are becoming increasingly popular among middle-aged and older adults, yet there are few studies documenting why adults of different ages play these games, what benefits they perceive, and how regularly they play. The present study compared the online survey responses of 10,308 adults ranging from 18 to 80 years of age to questions regarding PopCap's popular free online game, Bejeweled Blitz (BJB). All respondents cited playing against friends as their main reason for playing. However, there were differences by age in the second most frequently cited reason. Middle-aged adults cited stress relief, and older adults reported that they seek the game's challenges. As a result of playing CVGs, younger adults noted that they felt sharper and experienced improved memory; older adults were more likely to feel that their visuospatial skills and response time benefited. Adults aged 60 and older had heavier patterns of game play than did adults under the age of 60 years. A significant number of respondents (14.7%) spontaneously noted that they felt that BJB had addictive qualities. CVG players seem to be drawn into this activity by its social nature and to a certain extent by its reinforcing properties. Once involved, however, they believe that they derive a number of benefits that, for older adults, appear to offset declines in age-sensitive cognitive functions.

A multiethnic sample of single, heterosexual, emerging-adult college students (N = 3,907) ages 18 to 25, from 30 institutions across the United States, participated in a study about identity, culture, psychological well-being, and risky behaviors. Given ongoing debates about the connection between casual sex and psychological adjustment, in the current study we assessed the cross-sectional association of participation in casual sex with psychological well-being and distress. A greater proportion of men (18.6%) compared to women (7.4%) reported having had casual sex in the month prior to assessment. Structural equation modeling indicated that casual sex was negatively associated with well-being (s = .20, p

Research indicates making identity commitments on the part of emerging adults is associated with a wide range of psychosocial benefits. Data from a large research collaborative were used to evaluate hypotheses drawn from eudaimonic identity theory that the benefits of commitment are attributable to the quality of the commitments held. Findings from a study with 9,650 students attending 30 colleges and universities replicated previous research indicating the benefits of identity commitments with respect to subjective well-being, psychological well-being, self-esteem, an internal locus of control; and reduced likelihood of symptoms of general anxiety, social anxiety, and depression. However, when a measure of the quality of identity commitments was added to the analyses, results indicated that commitment quality accounted almost entirely for the associations of identity commitments with psychosocial functioning. Identity commitments of low quality were found to be associated with psychological costs rather than benefits. Implications for helping emerging adults distinguish better identity choices are discussed.

The present study investigated naturally occurring profiles based on two dimensions of meaning in life: Presence of Meaning and Search for Meaning. Cluster analysis was used to examine meaning-in-life profiles, and subsequent analyses identified different patterns in psychosocial functioning for each profile. A sample of 8,492 American emerging adults (72.5% women) from 30 colleges and universities completed measures on meaning in life, and positive and negative psychosocial functioning. Results provided support for five meaningful yet distinguishable profiles. A strong generalizability of the cluster solution was found across age, and partial generalizability was found across gender and ethnicity. Furthermore, the five profiles showed specific patterns in relation to positive and negative psychosocial functioning. Specifically, respondents with profiles high on Presence of Meaning showed the most adaptive psychosocial functioning, whereas respondents with profiles where meaning was largely absent showed maladaptive psychosocial functioning. The present study provided additional evidence for prior research concerning the complex relationship between Presence of Meaning and Search for Meaning, and their relation with psychosocial functioning. Our results offer a partial clarification of the nature of the Search for Meaning process by distinguishing between adaptive and maladaptive searching for meaning in life.

Objective The present study was designed to ascertain the associations between acculturation and well-being in first-generation and second-generation immigrant college students. Acculturation was operationalized as a multidimensional construct comprised of heritage and American cultural practices, values (individualism and collectivism), and identifications, and well-being was operationalized in terms of subjective, psychological, and eudaimonic components. Method Participants were 2,774 first-generation and second-generation immigrant students (70% women), from 6 ethnic groups and from 30 colleges and universities around the United States. Participants completed measures of heritage and American cultural practices, values, and identifications, as well as of subjective, psychological, and eudaimonic well-being. Results Findings indicated that individualistic values were positively related to psychological and eudaimonic well-being, and positively, although somewhat less strongly, linked with subjective well-being. American and heritage identifications were both modestly related to psychological and eudaimonic well-being. These findings were consistent across gender, immigrant generation (first versus second), and ethnicity. Conclusions Psychological and eudaimonic well-being appear to be inherently individualistic conceptions of happiness, and endorsement of individualistic values appears linked with these forms of well-being. Attachments to a cultural group—the United States, one's country of origin, or both—appear to promote psychological and eudaimonic well-being as well. The present findings suggest that similar strategies can be used to promote well-being for both male and female students, for students from various ethnic backgrounds, and for both first-generation and second-generation immigrant students. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J. Clin. Psychol. 00:1–21, 2012.

Objectives The current study evaluated the mediational role of well-being in the relationship between identity development and psychosocial functioning. Method A sample of 7,649 undergraduate students (73% female; mean age = 19.95, standard deviation = 1.98; 62% Caucasian) completed measures of personal identity, well-being, internalizing symptoms, externalizing problems, and health-risk behaviors. Results Results revealed that (a) identity exploration and commitment were negatively associated with internalizing symptoms, health-risk behaviors, and externalizing problems through well-being, (b) ruminative exploration was negatively associated with well-being and positively associated with externalizing problems, and (c) increased levels of ruminative exploration appear more detrimental for men than for women. Conclusion The study shed light on the mechanisms through which identity processes are related to internalizing symptoms, externalizing problems, and health-risk behaviors. The role of well-being in these associations, and the potentially deleterious “side effects” of exploration and commitment appear to suggest new and important directions for identity research.

Jewish Americans may grapple with issues of ethnic identity differently than the larger White American group. Drawn from a large multisite sample (N = 8,501), 280 Jewish American (207 female, 73 male) emerging adults were compared with White American and ethnic minority samples on ethnic and U.S. identity. Jewish Americans rated themselves as significantly higher on measures of ethnic and U.S. identity compared with White Americans but not as highly as ethnic minorities. Ethnic identity search, affirmation, and resolution also predicted higher self-esteem for Jewish Americans, similar to the pattern for other ethnic groups. In addition, ethnic identity search and affirmation moderated the link between perceived discrimination and depressive symptoms among Jewish Americans.

The present study used longitudinal data on 182 adults between the ages of 20 and 54 (104 men, 78 women) from the Rochester Adult Longitudinal Study (RALS), assessed on four occasions, to test the hypothesis that identity and intimacy during the course of early and middle adulthood predict well-being at midlife. A cross-lagged panel model was estimated yielding the following findings: (a) Scores on both scales during the college years predicted midlife satisfaction-intimacy directly, and identity through the course of development from ages 20 to 54; moreover, identity in midlife, but not intimacy, was significantly linked with well-being at this same point in time; and (b) identity and intimacy unexpectedly did not predict one another over time, having been controlled for factor stability in identity and intimacy over time. The findings are discussed in terms of Erikson's psychosocial theory of development and the developmental moments and historical cohorts that characterize the present sample.

Psychologists will need to develop increased competencies for Geropsychology practice to serve the behavioral and mental health care needs of an aging population. The Council of Professional Geropsychology Training Programs (CoPGTP) developed the Pikes Peak Geropsychology Knowledge and Skill Assessment Tool to help psychologists and geropsychology trainees evaluate professional geropsychology competencies and related training needs. In this study, geropsychologists and geropsychology trainees were asked to complete the competency tool to evaluate its psychometric properties and to assess

OBJECTIVE: To examine the relationship between self-reported physical functioning and depressive symptoms by testing the mediation of identity processes in linking this relationship. METHODS: Sixty-eight older adults (mean age= 74.4) participated in this cross-sectional study. Participants completed measures of physical functioning (Physical Symptoms Checklist), depressive symptoms (CESD-20) and identity processes (IES-G). RESULTS: The relationship between physical functioning and depressive symptoms was partially mediated by sensitivity of older adults to feedback from experiences, the process known as identity accommodation (Whitbourne, Sneed,Skultety, 2002). CONCLUSION: Not only are physical changes relevant to negative psychological outcomes in later adulthood, but it is the interpretation of these changes that seems to have particular relevance for aging individuals. Though preliminary based on cross-sectional data, the findings suggest that examining individual differences in sensitivity to aging stereotypes may help identify factors related to depressive symptoms in later adulthood. Future research is needed to disentangle these interrelated concepts.

The present mixed-methods study investigated meanings and affective valences ascribed to “American identity” and the ways in which these meanings and valences relate to ethnic and personal identity. The data were collected from 2004 to 2006 and used a multiethnic sample of 287 college students residing in Miami, Florida. Subjective meanings of American identity were assessed using four qualitative questions that were coded thematically: characteristics that define the typical American, characteristics that describe ways in which one is American, qualities that make one something other than American, and the degree to which one feels American. Results suggested many similarities, along with some differences, across ethnic groups. In terms of how American one feels, ethnic minorities felt less American than Whites and believed that, regardless of their citizenship, they are not perceived as American. Responses suggested that participants believed that to be American, one must sacrifice a connection to family and community. Continuing to examine the relationship between national, ethnic, and personal identity will help us better understand how emerging adults make sense of their social world and manage difficult choices about their identities.

Memory is a salient area of functioning in adulthood known to be influenced by beliefs about performance. To date, individual variations in memory beliefs have not been systematically examined. The present study used hierarchical linear regressions to examine the relationship between Memory Controllability Index (MCI) subscales and identity processes in 250 adults ( M = 58.01, 40 to 91 years), controlling for age, gender, and self-rated health. The ability to integrate age-related changes into identity was positively related to MCI scales measuring assessment of ability, potential to improve memory, and belief in the value of using memory strategies. The identity scale measuring negative age-related changes was related to lower memory self-assessment, ability to improve, and the belief that memory decline is inevitable. Contrary to expectation, the tendency to resist making changes in identity was not related to controllability. Findings support the utility of understanding memory-related beliefs in middle and later adulthood in terms of identity processes.

OBJECTIVES Past research has established that the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM) exhibits measurement invariance across diverse ethnic groups. However, relatively little research has evaluated whether this measure is invariant across generational status. Thus, the present study evaluates the invariance of the MEIM across foreign-born, second-generation, and later-generation respondents. METHOD A large, ethnically diverse sample of college students completed the MEIM as part of an online survey (N = 9,107; 72.8% women; mean age = 20.31 years; SD = 3.38). RESULTS There is evidence of configural and metric invariance, but there is little evidence of scalar invariance across generational status groups. CONCLUSIONS This study suggests that the MEIM has an equivalent factor structure across generation groups, indicating it is appropriate to compare the magnitude of associations between the MEIM and other variables across foreign-born, second-generation, and later-generation individuals. However, the lack of scalar invariance suggests that mean-level differences across generational status should be interpreted with caution. (PsycINFO Database Record

Three experiments examined the attentional components of the popular match-3 casual video game, Bejeweled Blitz (BJB). Attentionally demanding, BJB is highly popular among adults, particularly those in middle and later adulthood. In experiment 1, 54 older adults (Mage = 70.57) and 33 younger adults (Mage = 19.82) played 20 rounds of BJB, and completed online tasks measuring reaction time, simple visual search, and conjunction visual search. Prior experience significantly predicted BJB scores for younger adults, but for older adults, both prior experience and simple visual search task scores predicted BJB performance. Experiment 2 tested whether BJB practice alone would result in a carryover benefit to a visual search task in a sample of 58 young adults (Mage = 19.57) who completed 0, 10, or 30 rounds of BJB followed by a BJB-like visual search task with targets present or absent. Reaction times were significantly faster for participants who completed 30 but not 10 rounds of BJB compared with the search task only. This benefit was evident when targets were both present and absent, suggesting that playing BJB improves not only target detection, but also the ability to quit search effectively. Experiment 3 tested whether the attentional benefit in experiment 2 would apply to non-BJB stimuli. The results revealed a similar numerical but not significant trend. Taken together, the findings suggest there are benefits of casual video game playing to attention and relevant everyday skills, and that these games may have potential value as training tools.

Erikson’s core stages (trust, identity, and ego integrity) were modeled over 34 years from college through the late 1950s among 175 men and women tested on the Inventory of Psychosocial Development (Constantinople, Dev Psychol 1:357–372, 1969) testing the hypothesis that each, although united by the theme of wholeness and continuity, would show distinct developmental trajectories. Stage 1 (Trust versus Mistrust) followed a positive linear trajectory and Stage 5 (Identity versus Diffusion) followed a curvilinear trajectory that leveled off in middle adulthood. Stage 8 (Ego Integrity versus Despair) followed a curvilinear trajectory with an increasing trend in middle adulthood. The unique trajectories for each of the psychosocial crisis stages were expected on the basis of Erikson’s theory. In addition, there was also significant variability in either the mean or slope of each stage demonstrating individual differences in change, a central tenet of Erikson’s life span developmental approach.

Older adults are faced with numerous physical, psychological, and social role changes that challenge their sense of self and capacity to live happily. In addition, they are inundated by our youth-oriented culture with negative ageist stereotypes. Nevertheless, most older adults live happy, fulfilling lives. In this article, we review theories of the aging individual that address this apparent paradox. These theories can be largely divided into those that emphasize control and goal attainment, and those that emphasize the self's organizational capacity. Of the self-oriented theories, we will highlight Whitbourne's (1996) identity process perspective, which is specific to the aging process and attempts to explain the self's unique capacity to remain stable yet change over time.

Identity process theory proposes that adjustment to aging can be conceptualized as involving the three processes of identity assimilation (maintaining self-consistency), identity accommodation (making changes in the self), and identity balance (maintaining a sense of self but changing when necessary). Measures of the identity processes and self-consciousness were administered to a community sample of 173 adults (108 women and 65 men) ranging in age from 42 to 85 years (M = 60.80; SD = 12.58). Consistent with theory, identity assimilation was positively associated with age and negatively related to self-reflection. Identity accommodation was negatively related to age and internal state awareness and positively related to self-reflection and public self-consciousness. Identity balance alone was positively related to internal state awareness, indicating that the ability to incorporate age-related changes within identity but at the same time maintain a consistent and positive view of the self is most conducive to successful aging.

The study of identity development in adulthood presents a number of fascinating theoretical challenges, including the relationship of identity to physical, cognitive, emotional, and social functioning. Equally challenging is the measurement of identity processes throughout the adult years. In this article, we discuss a theoretical model that relates identity to experiences in adulthood and incorporates the processes of identity assimilation, identity accommodation, and identity balance. We present data examining the relationship between the Identity and Experiences Scale (IES), a 33-item self-report rating scale, and the Defense Mechanisms Inventory (Gleser & Ihilevich, 1969). Relationships of identity processes to hypothesized personality constructs, gender, and age are discussed and examined as a basis for elaborating more fully on the model and its measurement.

Older women face a number of unique challenges with regard to obtaining effective interventions for mental health disorders. For instance, the interaction of negative stereotypes and discrimination create inequities in access to health care and other resources. From a biopsychosocial perspective, multiple factors influence the development of mental health issues among older women (e.g., developmental, physical, psychological, and social factors), and the literature in this area points to particularly high rates of mental health disorders, such as depression, among older women. From a feminist perspective, we argue that discrimination and negative stereotypes play a salient role in increasing older women’s risk for suffering from depression in particular. Research on neurocognitive decline in older adults points to depression as a specific risk factor. As such, it is imperative to understand the ways in which older women can overcome barriers to obtaining relief from mental health issues through treatment or other nonclinical means throughout the lifespan.

BACKGROUND: Prior literature has shown that ethnic affirmation, one aspect of ethnic identity, is positively associated with mental health. However, the associations between ethnic affirmation and mental health may vary depending how much importance individuals place on their ethnic group membership (ie, centrality). METHODS: Using path analysis, the current study examined the relations between ethnic affirmation and indices of mental health problems (ie, anxiety and depressive symptoms), and tested whether the process was moderated by ethnic centrality among 3,659 college students representing 3 ethnic groups (41% Latino/a, 35% Asian American, and 24% African American) who participated in a large, multisite university study. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: Results suggested that the associations between ethnic affirmation and mental health were stronger for Latino/a and Asian American students who reported higher levels of ethnic centrality. For African Americans, higher levels of ethnic affirmation predicted better mental health, but this association did not vary as a function of ethnic centrality.

The aging process affects the individual across a broad range of physical, psychological, and social functions. Therefore, an understanding of individuals as they develop through the midlife period requires the integrative perspective provided by a biopsychosocial framework. The aging process presents a number of challenges to the midlife adult’s sense of self, or identity. Although these challenges can be difficult, the Baby Boomers in particular may be more likely to struggle with the changes experienced as a result of the aging process. Baby Boomers must reckon with the fact that they have now become middle aged, and have therefore become like the parents they very likely rebelled against as part of the establishment of their own identity during their adolescent and early young adult years.

Contents: S.K. Whitbourne, S.L. Willis, Preface. Part I: Baby Boomers: Demographic and Theoretical Perspectives. D.J. Eggebeen, S. Sturgeon, Demography of the Baby Boomers. A.J. Stewart, C.M. Torges, Social, Historical, and Developmental Influences on the Psychology of the Baby Boom at Midlife. D.F. Alwin, R.J. McCammon, S.M. Hofer, Studying Boomer Cohorts Within a Demographic and Developmental Context: Conceptual and Methodological Issues. Part II: Physical and Mental Health Issues. N.E. Avis, S. Crawford, Menopause: Recent Research Findings. J.R. Piazza, S.T. Charles, Mental Health Among the Baby Boomers. Part III: Psychosocial Issues. K.M. Jones, S.K. Whitbourne, K.M. Skultety, Identity Processes and the Transition to Midlife Among Baby Boomers. D.M. Almeida, J. Serido, D. McDonald, Daily Life Stressors Early and Late Baby Boomers. M.M. Skaff, The View From the Driver's Seat: Sense of Control in the Baby Boomers at Midlife. S.L. Willis, K.W. Schaie, Cognitive Functioning in the Baby Boomers: Longitudinal and Cohort Effects. Part IV: Functioning in Context. K. Fingerman, M. Dolbin-MacNab, The Baby Boomers and Their Parents: Cohort Influences and Intergenerational Ties. R. Blieszner, K. Roberto, Perspectives on Close Relationships Among the Baby Boomers. S.J. Czaja, Employment and the Baby Boomers: What Can We Expect in the Future? S.K. Whitbourne, S.L. Willis, Summary and Future Directions.

Introduction A drinking game (DG) is a high-risk, social drinking activity that consists of certain rules (i.e., when to drink and how much to consume) designed to promote inebriation and that requires each player to perform a cognitive and/or motor task (Zamboanga et al., 2013). Research suggests that non-White or female students who play DGs are at an increased risk of experiencing alcohol-related problems. Thus, this study examined whether the associations between DG participation and alcohol-related problems were similar for men and women and across ethnic groups. Method College students (N = 7409; 73% women; 64% White, 8% Black, 14% Hispanic, 14% Asian) from 30 U.S. colleges/universities completed self-report questionnaires. Results: Controlling for age, site, Greek membership (i.e., membership in a fraternity or sorority), and typical alcohol consumption, results indicated that the association between DG participation and alcohol-related problems was stronger for men compared to women. With respect to ethnicity, the association between these variables was stronger among Black women than Black men. Conclusions Findings from this large-scale study highlight the need to closely investigate how gender and ethnicity moderate the associations between DG participation and alcohol-related problems. College intervention efforts designed to address high-risk drinking behaviors such as DG participation might consider paying close attention to ethnic minority populations, perhaps particularly Black women.

In this article, we evaluate the factor structure of the Multigroup Ethnic Identity Measure (MEIM; Phinney, 1992) and test whether the MEIM exhibits measurement invariance across ethnic groups taken from a diverse sample of students from 30 different colleges and universities across the United States (N = 9,625). Initial analyses suggested that a bifactor model was an adequate representation of the structure of the MEIM. This model was then used in subsequent invariance tests. Results suggested that the MEIM displayed configural and metric invariance across 5 diverse ethnic groups (i.e., White, Black, Hispanic, East Asian, and South Asian). There were indications that the MEIM displayed a similar factor structure with roughly equivalent factor loadings across diverse ethnic groups. However, there was little evidence of scalar invariance across these groups, suggesting that mean-level comparisons of MEIM scores across ethnic groups should be interpreted with caution. The implications of these findings for the interpretation and use of this popular measure of ethnic identity are discussed.

This study was a test of the relationship between self-esteem and the identity processing styles of identity assimilation (i.e., maintaining consistent views of the self), accommodation (i.e., changing the self), and a balance between consistency seeking and identity change. A community sample of 242 older adults ranging in age from forty to ninety-five ( M = 63.31) completed measures of identity processing and self-esteem. Previous research has demonstrated that identity assimilation increases with age in order to maintain self-esteem in the domain of physical and cognitive functioning; this is referred to as the identity assimilation effect (IAE). Based on this research, a similar result was expected in the domain of personality. Although identity assimilation and balance predicted increases in self-esteem, and identity accommodation predicted decreases in self-esteem, as predicted, no interaction effects were observed. The results of this study suggest the IAE may be domain specific to physical and cognitive functioning.

Service-learning is an ideal teaching approach to use in courses on the psychology of aging because it allows experiential education to be actively integrated with classroom instruction. This article describes the results of adding a service-learning option to a lecture course on the psychology of aging. For this course, service-learning took place at local nursing homes, area retirement communities, and the local community center, which houses an activity program for older adults. Each student was required to complete 30 hr community service-learning during the semester, maintain a journal, write a summary paper, join a reflection group, and participate in a group presentation. Students were involved in a wide range of activities, from assisting with a hot lunch program to spending time talking with nursing home residents. Evaluation of the effectiveness of this approach was established by using open-ended student evaluations that were completed at the end of the semester. Data were gathered over 2 years...

This article describes an approach to using instructional materials and projects in a course on the psychology of aging which give students the opportunity to have a variety of innovative, interactive learning experiences. Instructional materials include in-class examples of aging as it is depicted in films, television, and the media. Eight types of project requirements which provide students opportunities to learn about aging are presented in this paper, seven of which involve a group discussion format. At the end of the semester, students design class presentations based on their projects which allow other students in the class to learn from each other's experiences. The student reports also enhance the material on the psychology of aging that has been presented during the course.

The present research explores the relationship between identity and changes in physical functioning over the adult years. Adults from 40-95 years of age (N = 242) rated themselves in 20 areas of normative functioning and identity processes. The findings indicate that adults as young as 40 are sensitive to age-related changes. Those 65 and older exhibited greater sensitivity to changes in competence. Identity assimilation was used most by adults under 65, particularly in the area of cognitive functioning. For individuals in both age groups, identity assimilation was positively related to self-esteem. The findings suggest that individuals may make behavioral adjustments without ruminating or becoming preoccupied, a strategy that may promote healthy adaptation to the aging process. Clinical implications of these findings are examined. The construct of identity is used in the area of adult development and aging to refer to the

The present study was designed to ascertain the extent to which dimensions of acculturation would differ across personal identity statuses in a sample of 2,411 first- and second-generation, immigrant, college-attending emerging adults. Participants from 30 colleges and universities around the United States completed measures of personal identity processes, as well as of heritage and American cultural practices, values, and identifications. Cluster-analytic procedures were used to classify participants into personal identity statuses based on the personal identity processes. Results indicated that, across ethnic groups, individuals in the achieved and searching moratorium statuses reported the greatest endorsement of heritage and American cultural practices, values, and identifications; and individuals in the carefree diffusion status reported the lowest endorsement of all the cultural variables under study. These results are discussed in terms of the convergence between personal identity and cultural identity processes.

Adults ranging from 20 to 42 years of age were compared on the Extended Objective Measure of Identity Statuses, a questionnaire measure of identity statuses in the domains of ideological and interpersonal development. As hypothesized, compared to current college students, men and women over 30 years of age showed patterns of more mature identity development in both domains with the exception of foreclosure scores in the interpersonal domain that remained stable. Relationships between life commitments and identity statuses were analyzed separately for adults in their 30s compared to those in their 40s, revealing complex interactions with gender and normative cohort expectations. As hypothesized, relationships between identity statuses and adult commitments were more generally observed for the younger adult cohort, for whom individual differences in psychosocial development rather than age-related expectations might be expected to serve as determinants of early life choices.

The goal of this study was to evaluate a program designed to promote attitude change among undergraduates, whose views of the elderly have traditionally been mixed. The subjects were college students enrolled in a psychology of aging class. They completed measures pertaining to knowledge of the aging process and attitudes toward the elderly during the first week of class and then again during the last week. In addition, a subgroup of the class who volunteered weekly with the elderly were compared with other subgroups who had limited or no contact with older adults. These volunteers were required to document their experiences in journals, which were then examined to provide qualitative data. Finally, a control group was included in an effort to control for positive bias in the aging class. A 2 (time) x 3 (group) multiple analysis of variance with repeated measures on the first factor was conducted on these data. There was a significant effect of time, F (1,94) = 20.47, p < .001. Students’ knowledge about a...

Infantilization was investigated in a sample of thirty-five elderly adults, both community residents ( N = 18) and residents of institutions ( N = 17). Respondents were presented with materials designed to elicit ratings of adult and infantilized speech content and intonation on the dimensions of “likeability,” “equality of treatment,” and “degree of respect.” Community and institutionalized elders rated adult speech in an equivalent fashion. However, community residents were more negative in their ratings of infantilizing speech content and intonation compared to their ratings of adult speech than were institutionalized elders. The negative regard that community elders had for infantilizing speech was particularly pronounced for intonation. Furthermore, community elders appeared particularly resentful of infantilizing speech intonation on the dimension of respect. There was no evidence to support the contention that infantilizing speech is high in nurturance. Adding to the findings of Ryan and co-workers, it appeared important to differentiate between infantilizing content and intonation, as the infantilizing intonation produced a more pronounced negative reaction than did infantilizing content among community elders.

The typically positive relationship between cognitive reappraisal and psychological functioning may be nullified for Latinos embedded within multiple contexts of oppression (Perez & Soto, 2011). Multiply oppressive contexts are characterized by exposure to oppression at a societal level (distal oppression), in the immediate environment (proximal oppression), and at an individual level (personal oppression). We replicated and extended Perez and Soto's (2011) findings by examining whether the reappraisal-psychological functioning association was moderated by (a) relative numerical representation of Latinos within the environment (proximal oppression) and (b) personal perceptions of discrimination (personal oppression) among 425 Latino college students throughout the United States. For Latinos in high-Latino counties, greater use of reappraisal was associated with better psychological functioning, regardless of perceived discrimination; this relationship was absent for Latinos in low-Latino counties who perceived greater discrimination. Findings highlight the importance of considering how contextual factors can alter the adaptive functions of emotion regulation strategies.

Notes on Contributors ix Preface xvii Susan Krauss Whitbourne and Martin J. Sliwinski Part I Foundations 1 Theoretical Perspectives: A Biopsychosocial Approach to Positive Aging 3 Elliot M. Friedman and Carol D. Ryff 2 Demography of Aging: Behavioral and Social Implications 25 Susan Krauss Whitbourne and Stacey B. Whitbourne 3 Late Life: A Venue for Studying the Mechanisms by Which Contextual Factors Influence Individual Development 49 Denis Gerstorf and Nilam Ram 4 Methodological Issues in Research on Adult Development and Aging 72 Scott M. Hofer, Philippe Rast, and Andrea M. Piccinin Part II Physical Changes and Health 5 Physical Exercise and Health 97 Leslie I. Katzel and Gregory M. Steinbrenner 6 Behavioral Stability and Change in Health Across the Adult Life Cycle 118 Ilene C. Siegler and Adam Davey Part III Cognition 7 Processing Speed 135 Judith Dirk and Florian Schmiedek 8 Working Memory 154 David P. McCabe and Vanessa M. Loaiza 9 Memory and Aging 174 Brent J. Small, Kerri S. Rawson, Sarah Eisel, and Cathy L. McEvoy 10 Everyday Cognition 190 Jason C. Allaire Part IV Personality 11 Personality Development in Adulthood 211 Nicky J. Newton and Abigail J. Stewart 12 Socioemotional Perspectives on Adult Development 236 Jennifer Tehan Stanley and Derek M. Isaacowitz 13 Personality and Aging: Cognitive Perspectives and Processes 254 Eileen Kranz Graham and Margie E. Lachman Part V Abnormal Aging 14 Affective Disorders and Age: The View Through a Developmental Lens 275 Jennifer R. Piazza and Susan Turk Charles 15 Alzheimer s Disease and Other Dementias 293 Joshua R. Steinerman and Richard B. Lipton 16 Personality Disorders in Later Life 312 Daniel L. Segal, Richard Zweig, and Victor Molinari 17 Assessment of Older Adults 331 Christine E. Gould, Barry A. Edelstein, and Lindsay A. Gerolimatos Part VI Social Processes 18 Self-Regulation and Social Cognition in Adulthood: The Gyroscope of Personality 357 Cory Bolkan and Karen Hooker 19 Partners and Friends in Adulthood 381 Rosemary Blieszner and Karen A. Roberto 20 Intergenerational Relationships and Aging 399 Kira S. Birditt and Elvina Wardjiman 21 Retirement: An Adult Development Perspective 416 Mo Wang Part VII Well-Being and Creativity 22 Effects of Remaining Time for Psychological Well-Being and Cognition 433 Boo Johansson and Anne Ingeborg Berg 23 Successful Aging 459 Colin A. Depp, Ipsit V. Vahia, and Dilip V. Jeste 24 Creative Productivity and Aging: An Age Decrement or Not? 477 Dean Keith Simonton Author Index 497 Subject Index 527

Objectives. To study the aging self, that is, conceptions of one’s own aging process, in relation to identity processes and self-esteem in the United States and the Netherlands. As the liberal American system has a stronger emphasis on individual responsibility and youthfulness than the social–democratic Dutch system, we expect that youthful and positive perceptions of one’s own aging process are more important in the United States than in the Netherlands. Methods. Three hundred and nineteen American and 235 Dutch persons between 40 and 85 years participated in the study. A single question on age identity and the Personal Experience of Aging Scale measured aspects of the aging self. The Identity and Experiences Scale measured identity processes and Rosenberg’s scale measured self-esteem. Results. A youthful age identity and more positive personal experiences of aging were related to identity processes and self-esteem. These conceptions of one’s own aging process also mediate the relation between identity processes and self-esteem. This mediating effect is stronger in the United States than in the Netherlands. Discussion. As expected, the self-enhancing function of youthful and positive aging perceptions is stronger in the liberal American system than in the social–democratic Dutch welfare system. The aging self should therefore be studied in its cultural context.

The college years are a time of significant growth in the individual's adaptive capacities in the cognitive, emotional, and social domains. Erikson 's theory of 1963 predicts that the college years are specifically a time of growth in the psychosocial issue of ego identity, but along with this development are increases in other aspects of psychosocial functioning. The opportunity to test this prediction across three cohorts of college students was presented through an expanded follow-up study of Constantinople's 1969 classic investigation of psychosocial development in a sample of over 300 undergraduates. Data were collected from undergraduates attending the same university in 1977 and 1988, allowing for a three-wave cross-sectional sequences design. The results indicated that, for all times of measurement and most of Erikson's psychosocial stages, college seniors generally had higher development than their younger classmates. Furthermore, females generally had higher psychosocial development scores than did males. The lack of cohort differences in the observed patterns of development and the minimal extent of cohort differences across college classes suggests that personality development during college is relatively uninfluenced by shifting psychosocial pressures over decades of social change.